INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue X October 2025
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Electrifying Public Mobility: Pathways, Challenges and Opportunities for
Electric Vehicles (with focus on Punjab)
Rupinder Pal Singh
Deptt of Public Mobility, India
DOI: https://doi.org/10.51244/IJRSI.2025.1210000064
Received: 20 October 2025; Accepted: 27 October 2025; Published: 03 November 2025
ABSTRACT
The state of Punjab is at a critical juncture in redefining its mobility systems. With rapid urbanization, rising
vehicle ownership and deteriorating air quality, the demand for a sustainable public transport framework has
never been greater. This paper examines the role of electric vehicles (EVs), particularly in the public mobility
sector, as a transformative pathway for Punjab’s transportation future. Drawing from Ludhiana’s Comprehensive
Mobility Plan (2014), Low Carbon Mobility Plan (2013) and recent insights on electric mobility, this research
highlights both the opportunities and barriers in adopting EVs in public transport. The paper concludes with
policy recommendations that can help in achieving a modal shift toward sustainable, electrified and equitable
mobility.
Keywords: Public Mobility; Electric Vehicles; Electric Buses; E-rickshaws; Punjab; Sustainable Transport;
Shared Mobility; Just Transition; Case Study; Low Carbon Mobility; PM-eBus Sewa; Policy Roadmap; Grid
Readiness.
INTRODUCTION
In Punjab, A new type of electric vehicle (EV) revolution is unfolding in the hinterlands. This writer had the
chance to visit Bathinda, where almost everyone seems to be using electric two-wheelers and electric three-
wheelers. When asked, people explained that free electricity of up to 3,00 units has enabled them to adopt EVs.
Similar trends have been observed in other parts of the state, driven by growing awareness of the positive
implications of EV adoption. The potential for EVs to reduce greenhouse gas emissions can range from 10% to
60%, depending on the type of EV and geographic area. For comparison, an internal combustion engine vehicle
(ICEV) emits 120 g/km of CO₂ on a tank-to-wheel basis, which rises to 170–180 g/km later.
India has prioritized electric mobility through the National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NEMMP) and the
FAME (Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Electric Vehicles) scheme. The second phase, FAME-II,
launched in 2019, allocated significant funds for the procurement of electric buses, charging stations and demand
incentives. In 2023, the PM-eBus Sewa scheme further accelerated this transition by providing direct financial
support for e-bus operations in urban centres. (Government of India, Prime Minister’s Office. (2023, August
16)).
As of early 2025, India has registered over 5.6 million EVs, with the public mobility sector emerging as a key
focus area, particularly for urban transport and last-mile delivery. Electric buses are central to this strategy: under
the PM e-Bus Sewa scheme launched in August 2023, 10,000 e-buses are planned with a budget of ₹20,000
crore, complemented by the PM E-DRIVE scheme introduced in September 2024, which adds incentives for
over 14,000 e-buses. By August 2025, 7,293 e-buses had been approved across 14 states and four Union
Territories. Leading manufacturers include PMI Electro Mobility, Switch Mobility, Olectra Greentech and JBM
Auto, while the PM-eBus Sewa Payment Security Mechanism (PSM) intends to provide financial safeguards to
support deployment of over 38,000 e-buses in five years. (Economic Times Auto, 2025).
India dominates the global market for electric three-wheelers, widely used for last-mile connectivity. In 2024, e-
three-wheelers comprised 57% of total three-wheeler sales. Adoption is driven by lower operating costs, rising
fuel prices, government incentives and the shift to lithium-ion batteries. Major players include Mahindra Last
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
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Mile Mobility, Bajaj Auto and Piaggio, along with smaller domestic manufacturers. Charging infrastructure is
expanding rapidly, with over 29,000 stations nationwide by August 2025, up from 5,151 in 2022, supported by
₹2,000 crore under PM E-DRIVE. Operators such as Tata Power, Statiq and Indian Oil are building fast-charging
corridors. (Economic Times Energy, 2025).
Looking ahead, India targets 30% EV penetration by 2030. However, challenges persist limited infrastructure in
semi-urban areas, funding gaps and slow advances in battery technology. Global experiences offer lessons:
Shenzhen (China) electrified over 16,000 buses by 2017 through subsidies and manufacturing support; Venice
(Italy) deployed electric ferries and buses; and Copenhagen (Denmark) integrated EVs with cycling
infrastructure. (Ministry of Heavy Industries, Government of India)
Despite progress, India’s public EV charging remains inadequate. By February 2024, 12,146 charging stations
were operational, far short of the 1.32 million required by 2030 (CII estimate). This gap highlights the urgency
for private investment, large-scale installation and need of coordinated government planning to address
consumer “range anxiety” and enable widespread adoption. (Confederation of Indian Industry (CII), 2024)
2. Challenges
2.1 Electric Mobility and National Policy Context
Multiple local reports show depot and charging infrastructure delays that keep the e-buses “on paper.” Central
allocations matter, but state and city capacity (tendering, land/procurement, grid readiness) determines whether
allocations translate to operations. High upfront EV costs, driven mainly by lithium-ion batteries, restrict
affordability. Limited driving range, long charging times and shorter battery lifespan further discourage adoption
(Goel, Sharma & Rathore, 2021). Insufficient charging and recycling facilities also represent institutional gaps.
In Ludhiana, surveys revealed that 36% of car and two-wheeler owners were willing to switch to EVs. Similar
efforts are underway elsewhere. (Government of India, PMO report on EV. (2023, August 16)). Hyderabad
plans to replace diesel buses with electric ones, while Magenta Power is developing charging infrastructure on
the Mumbai-Pune highway. The Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers (SIAM) targets 100% pure EVs
for intra-city public fleets by 2030, but for these steps, drastic policy measures have to be implemented.
2.2 Implementation, governance and execution risks
Implementation shortfalls directly affect EV adoption. Poor road quality raises maintenance costs and disrupts
depot and corridor planning. For instance, Ludhiana’s 2.2 km, 200-ft road between Phullanwal Chowk and
Dhandra Road developed potholes and cracks even before completion, and this road could have emerged as
laboratory for EV Mobilization. (Hindustan Times, 2024). Such governance issues illustrate practical barriers
to large-scale EV operations.
2.3 Challenges specific to Electric Vehicle Adoption in Punjab
Electric vehicle adoption in Punjab faces multiple systemic and operational challenges that hinder large-scale
uptake. Specialized servicing remains scarce, with limited diagnostic tools, skilled technicians, and spare parts
availability, resulting in longer downtimes and reduced consumer confidence. High upfront costs, particularly
for buses and commercial fleets, continue to discourage investment despite government subsidies, as the
extended payback period remains a deterrent. Public perception further complicates adoption, with widespread
doubts regarding performance, battery life and long-term reliability. On the supply side, dependence on critical
raw materials such as lithium, cobalt, and nickel exposes the sector to global price volatility, geopolitical risks,
and environmental concerns tied to unsustainable mining practices. Battery degradation over time reduces range
and efficiency, raising replacement costs and creating recycling challenges. Driving range limitations restrict
long-distance usability, especially for logistics and public transport, while prolonged charging durations add to
operational inefficiencies for both private and fleet operators. Additionally, meeting stringent safety
requirements around battery thermal management, crash resistance, and electrical safety increases design and
compliance costs. Punjab’s electricity mix heavily reliant on thermal power, integrating EV charging with
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
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renewable energy sources, such as solar at depots, is essential to prevent the mere shifting of emissions rather
than achieving genuine environmental benefits (IIT Kanpur).
3. Punjab Scenario – Subsidies adoption of EVM Autos can enhance of mobility (Allocation of Buses to
Punjab under E-bus Service)
Punjab’s adoption is concentrated in e-rickshaws and two-wheelers, while public e-bus deployment is still
nascent. Punjab’s current strategy emphasizes depot-based overnight charging, where buses return to depots for
4–6 hours of charging.
3.1 Infrastructure and Operations - Ludhiana
Ludhiana requires major grid augmentation, as a 100-bus depot there could add 5–7 MW of demand,
necessitating close coordination with the Punjab State Power Corporation Limited (PSPCL) and integration
with the Sherpur grid model to enhance distribution capacity and voltage stability. Under PM e-Seva, 100
buses have been allotted to Ludhiana. Meanwhile, Ludhiana is one of Punjab’s largest industrial hubs which
have witnessed a 70% increase in EV registrations over two years, driven by rising fuel costs, environmental
awareness, and government incentives.
3.2 Amritsar
Amritsar’s public transport system struggles with limited capacity and inefficiencies. The Bus Rapid Transit
System (BRTS), launched in 2019, has faced low ridership and weak feeder integration. Yet, it provides a ready-
made corridor for deploying e-buses, particularly in heritage-sensitive areas.
By October 2025, Amritsar is set to receive 100 e-buses under the PM-eBus Sewa scheme (40 at Maal Mandi
City Bus Workshop and 60 at Verka Bypass BRTS Depot). These buses will act as feeder services to the BRTS
network, offering cleaner mobility for residents and pilgrims. Tourist-driven demand makes Amritsar ideal for
opportunity-charging stations near the Golden Temple and airport, ensuring uninterrupted services during peak
travel seasons. (The Tribune, 2025).
3.3 Jalandhar & Patiala
Jalandhar, an industrial hub for sports and leather goods and Patiala, known for education and heritage, face
similar challenges: congestion, rapid motorization and declining bus ridership.
Electrification strategies here focus on integrating e-buses with informal Intermediate Public Transport (IPT).
Without this integration, new services risk replicating the failures of past bus initiatives. Jalandhar has been
allocated 97 e-buses, while Patiala will operate 50 under the PM-eBus Sewa scheme.
3.4 Comparative Overview of Case Studies
City Allocation
of E-
Buses
Mobility
Model
Infrastructure
Focus
Strengths Challenges
Ludhiana (Industrial
Hub)
100 e-
buses
(PM-
eBus)
Depot-based
charging
model
Large
depots, high-
capacity grid
feeders (5–7
MW load per
100 buses)
High
commuter
demand;
potential for
industrial
workforce
mobility
Grid readiness;
weak integration
with IPT; public
bus ridership <15%
of trips
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
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Amritsar (Tourist
City)
100 e-
buses
(PM-
eBus)
Corridor-
based (BRTS
+ Tourist
Corridors)
Charging
infra at
BRTS
terminals and
near heritage
zones
High visibility
along Golden
Temple and
tourist routes;
air quality
benefits
BRTS
underutilization;
IPT integration
weak; seasonal
demand peaks
Jalandhar (Medium
Industrial City)
97 e-
buses
(PM-
eBus)
Integration-
focused (Bus
+ IPT)
Depot
charging at
bus terminal;
feeder links
to markets
Manageable
fleet size;
potential for
feeder
integration
Unregulated IPT
competition; limited
bus network
Patiala
(Educational/Heritage
City)
50 e-
buses
(PM-
eBus)
Small-fleet
transformation
model
Single depot
charging
cluster;
smaller
corridors
Even small
fleets can
transform
coverage;
strong
potential for
university
routes
Low base of bus
ridership;
dependence on
informal autos
Source: CMP-Ludhiana-Final-Report and City-Report-Ludhiana
METHODOLOGY
Document Review and Synthesis: Policy reports, planning documents and academic articles were analyzed to
identify trends, challenges and opportunities in EV adoption.
Comparative Case Study Analysis: Punjab’s urban centers (Ludhiana, Amritsar) were compared with
international examples (Shenzhen, Venice, Copenhagen) to extract context-sensitive lessons.
Analytical Framework: The study examines sustainable mobility across three dimensions: environmental
sustainability, assessing emissions, air quality and battery lifecycle; socio-economic equity, covering
affordability, accessibility and workforce transition; and institutional capacity, evaluating policies, governance,
and infrastructure readiness.
This multi-dimensional approach ensures the research is not merely descriptive but also analytical, offering
practical pathways for accelerating electrified public mobility in Punjab.
5. Findings and Analysis
5.1 Modal Split
Public transport accounts for only 35% of motorized trips, far below the 60% benchmark. Without intervention,
private vehicle dependence will continue to dominate.
Graph: Modal Split in Ludhiana (2009 vs. Target 2031)
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
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2009: 65% private vehicles, 35% public transport
2031 (Target): 40% private, 60% public transport (with EVs as backbone)
Source: Author’s visualization.
5.2 EV Adoption Trends in India and Punjab
Graph : India’s EV Sales by Category (FY2019–FY2023)
(Line graph showing exponential growth, dominated by E2Ws, with a slow rise in e-buses.)
Source: Just Transition Research Centre (2024); Ministry of Heavy Industries, Government of India (2019,
FAME-II Notification); Author’s visualization.
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5.3 Pathways for Punjab’s Mobility Transition
By 2035, three scenarios emerge:
Business-as-Usual (BAU): EV uptake limited to private two-wheelers and e-rickshaws; public buses remain
diesel-based, worsening congestion and emissions.
Moderate Transition: Gradual introduction of e-buses in Ludhiana, Chandigarh and Amritsar, along with
formalization of e-rickshaws. Emissions stabilize but accessibility gaps persist.
Transformative Transition: State-led push to electrify 50% of the bus fleet by 2035, integrate e-rickshaws into
formal systems, promote e-bikes and expand renewable-powered charging networks.
Graph: EV Adoption Scenarios for Punjab (2035)
(Line chart comparing emissions and modal shares under BAU, Moderate and Transformative scenarios.)
Source: State Energy Efficiency Action Plan (SEEAP), Punjab
6. Policy Recommendations
6.1 Enhance Public EV Infrastructure and Accessibility
Strengthening public EV infrastructure is vital for wider adoption. Policies should prioritize fast charging
stations in cities, towns and along highways, supported through public–private partnerships and renewable
energy integration. Focused investment in transit hubs, corridors and dense neighborhoods can reduce range
anxiety and improve convenience. Affordable tariffs and inclusion of charging points in smart city and housing
projects will further build public confidence in shifting to electric mobility.
6.2 Promote Shared and Public Mobility
The Just Transition Research Centre (2024) found EV adoption fastest in two- and three-wheeler segments, while
public mobility lags due to high costs, weak infrastructure and institutional inertia. Shared mobility offers a
pathway to accelerate adoption. Car-sharing, e-rickshaw pooling and micro-transit reduce costs and expand
access, especially for those unable to purchase EVs. In Punjab, electrification of these services presents strong
potential. Public buses should target 50% electrification by 2035, leveraging FAME-II subsidies, leasing/PPP
models, and phasing out older diesel buses first.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
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6.3 Develop Charging Infrastructure
EV corridors should be developed along highways with fast-charging hubs at depots, terminals, and logistics
centers. At least 30% of charging capacity should come from renewables, especially rooftop solar. Urban local
bodies must mandate EV-ready parking in all new projects and integrate battery swapping for e-rickshaws.
6.4 Strengthen Institutional Coordination
Establish a Unified Metropolitan Transport Authority (UMTA) in major cities for integrated EV planning. At
the state level, a dedicated EV Commission should coordinate stakeholders, publish annual scorecards and ensure
accountability.
6.5 Support Manufacturing and Localization
India’s PLI must be leveraged schemes to build a self-reliant EV ecosystem. Advanced Automotive Technology
(₹25,938 crore) and Advanced Chemistry Cell Battery Storage (₹18,100 crore) incentivize domestic EV and
battery manufacturing. A minimum 50% Domestic Value Addition (DVA) ensures supply chain localisation,
complemented by GST reduction, tax waivers and PM e-DRIVE. Ludhiana and Jalandhar’s auto-component
base can help Punjab emerge as a manufacturing hub for EVs and batteries.
6.6 Grid Readiness and Energy Integration
In Punjab, PSPCL must map EV hotspots and upgrade distribution capacity. Statewide rollout should include
highway fast chargers and clustered AC chargers in towns. Solar-integrated depots and vehicle-to-grid (V2G)
pilots can reduce peak load pressures and emissions. Similar efforts can be adopted in other states too.
6.7 Skills Development and Battery Lifecycle Management
Launch an EV Skills & MSME Support Programme to train 5,000 technicians and provide grants to 200 MSMEs
adopting EV fleets. Retraining informal mechanics will protect livelihoods while building capacity for the new
mobility economy. Introduce an Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) framework for batteries covering
recycling, refurbishment and second-life applications, creating green industry opportunities.
CONCLUSION
Electric vehicles present a transformative opportunity to reshape public mobility in India especially in Punjab.
By prioritizing shared and public EVs such as buses, e-rickshaws and e-bikes, the state can simultaneously cut
emissions, reduce congestion, improve accessibility for low-income groups and foster industrial growth.
However, electrification must not be viewed as merely a technological shift. It requires institutional reform,
integration of renewable energy and inclusive policies that ensure affordability and workforce reskilling. Only
then can the transition be both sustainable and equitable.
The policy roadmap outlined in this study provides a clear direction: set ambitious yet achievable targets, develop
renewable-powered charging corridors, strengthen governance structures and leverage industrial strengths to
build local EV supply chains. Equally important is supporting communities and workers through skill
development and affordable mobility programs, ensuring a Just Transition.
Looking ahead, advancements in battery efficiency, ultra-fast and wireless charging and vehicle-to-grid (V2G)
systems will further accelerate adoption. Coupled with stakeholder engagement and public awareness, these
innovations can future-proof India’s mobility transition.
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