INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)  
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue XI November 2025  
Academic Stress and Substance Use in Zambian Christian  
Universities: Implications for Integrated Pastoral–Psychological Care  
1Atangambuyu Sinyani Silungwe, 2Christopher Kabwe Mukuka  
1PhD: Senior Lecturer and Researcher, Rusangu University, Monze, Zambia  
2PhD student at Adventist University of Africa in Nairobi, Kenya, and a lecturer at the School of  
Theology and Religious Studies, Rusangu University in Monze, Zambia  
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.51244/IJRSI.2025.12110081  
Received: 30 November 2025; Accepted: 04 December 2025; Published: 09 December 2025  
ABSTRACT  
This study investigates the relationship between academic stress and substance use within Zambian Christian  
universities, with specific attention to implications for integrated pastoral–psychological care. Faith-based  
institutions emphasize spiritual formation, but little evidence shows how academic stress affects alcohol and  
marijuana use. This mixed-methods study examined student substance use patterns and institutional mental  
health responses across three Christian universities in Zambia: Rusangu University, Eden University, and DMI–  
St Eugene University.  
Of the 412 total participants, 42 students participated in the quantitative survey, providing measurable evidence  
for statistical analysis, while 12 participants were purposively selected for qualitative inquiry. This mixed-  
methods design strengthened inferential confidence by integrating empirical trends with the lived experiences  
of institutional stakeholders. Although only a subset of participants contributed analyzable data, the inclusion of  
diverse institutional roles increased contextual validity and interpretive depth.  
Quantitative findings revealed a strong and statistically significant association between academic stress and  
substance use (r = .61, p < .001). Students experiencing high stress were 3.4 times more likely to consume  
alcohol and 2.8 times more likely to use marijuana compared to students reporting low stress. Regression  
analyses identified anxiety and depression as predictors of substance use.  
Qualitative analysis revealed three dominant themes: academic overload, emotional distress, and inadequate  
access to professional counseling services. Although spiritual programs were strongly emphasized across  
institutions, participants consistently reported that religious activities alone were insufficient to mitigate  
psychological distress in the absence of structured clinical support. The findings revealed critical gaps in  
counseling capacity, professional staffing, and institutional infrastructure within Christian higher education.  
The study underscores the necessity of implementing integrated pastoral–psychological care models that  
combine spiritual formation with evidence-based mental health interventions. Although geographically limited  
and reliant on self-reported data, this research supports institutional policy reform and targeted intervention  
strategies in Christian universities in Zambia. The results contribute to the discourse on student development by  
demonstrating that sustainable faith-based education requires alignment between spiritual and psychological  
support.  
Keywords: Academic Stress, Student Substance Abuse, Christian Higher Education, Mental Health, Alcohol,  
and Marijuana Use.  
INTRODUCTION  
Youth substance use is a critical global health concern that contributes to injuries, psychiatric disorders, violence,  
and premature mortality (World Health Organization [WHO], 2021). In sub-Saharan Africa, factors such as  
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poverty, academic pressure, unemployment, and weak mental health systems increase adolescents’ vulnerability  
to alcohol and drug misuse (Doku, 2012; Peltzer & Pengpid, 2016).  
In Zambia, national surveys, including the 2018 Zambia STEPS Survey, and independent studies indicate rising  
alcohol and marijuana use among students (Chinyama, Mweemba, & Lukwesa, 2020; Ministry of Health [MoH],  
2018). Academic stress, driven by heavy workloads, continuous assessments, examinations, and financial  
constraints, is linked to maladaptive coping behaviors such as substance use (Baron, 2019; Pascoe et al., 2020).  
The Transactional Model of Stress and Coping (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) helps to understand these behaviors.  
Students who perceive academic demands as exceeding their coping capacities may turn to alcohol or marijuana  
as a form of emotional self-regulation. Neighboring African countries like South Africa, Kenya, Uganda, and  
Nigeria show similar patterns, indicating that stress-related substance use is culturally embedded and regionally  
prevalent (Nalukenge et al.). 2016; Ologunwa, 2021).  
Christian universities in Zambia offer a unique context: Rusangu University, Eden University, and DMI-St  
Eugene University enroll students with diverse academic and behavioral challenges, expecting religious  
exposure to encourage moral transformation (Sakala, 2022). However, while spiritual development can provide  
resilience, it cannot replace structured mental health support (Koenig, 2012; Aten, O’Grady, & Worthington,  
2019). Ellen G. White emphasizes that “education, rightly understood, develops the faculties, both mental and  
moral, in harmony with the laws of God” (White, 1903, p. 45), highlighting the need to nurture students  
holistically. In addition, George Knight argues that Adventist education must balance spiritual, intellectual, and  
emotional development to prepare students for life’s challenges (Knight, 2000). This study examines the  
interplay between academic stress, substance use, and mental health, focusing on the responses of Christian  
universities in Zambia.  
Statement of the Problem  
Although awareness of mental health challenges in Zambia is growing, student substance use continues to rise.  
Educational institutions face several systemic constraints.  
1. A shortage of trained mental health professionals exists (Kapungwe,, et al., 2010; Ministry of Health, 2020).  
2. There is an overdependence on untrained guidance teachers (Sampa et al., 2021; Chileshe & Mwanza, 2019).  
3. Inadequate counseling infrastructure (Zulu & Kalumba, 2018; World Health Organization [WHO], 2021).  
4. Stigma continues to persist around seeking help for psychological issues (Kapungwe,et al., 2010; Sampa et  
al., 2021).  
Despite high moral expectations, Christian universities remain under-resourced in mental health care. Chapel  
attendance and strict disciplinary systems, without adequate clinical support, have not prevented student  
substance abuse (Ministry of Education, 2019; WHO, 2021). Emphasizing chapel programs and religious  
instruction over psychological services makes students more vulnerable to stress-related maladaptive behaviors  
(Sampa et al., 2021; Zulu & Kalumba, 2018). This imbalance raises alcohol and marijuana use, mental health  
disorders, and declining academic performance among students (Ministry of Health, 2020; World Health  
Organization, 2021).  
From a Christian education perspective, Ellen G. White emphasizes that “education develops the faculties, both  
mental and moral, in harmony with the laws of God” (White, 1903, p. Education) should nurture the whole  
person. Knight also argues that holistic education, which balances spiritual growth, intellectual development,  
and emotional well-being, protects against destructive coping behaviors like substance use (Knight, 2006; 2016).  
When spiritual formation is not complemented by professional psychosocial support systems, Christian  
institutions risk undermining the very development they seek to promote (Knight, 2006; White, 1903).  
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Research Purpose and Objectives  
Research Purpose  
This study examines the influence of academic stress on alcohol and marijuana use among students in Zambian  
Christian universities, with particular attention to mental health outcomes and institutional responses. It seeks to  
evaluate whether spiritual formation alone is sufficient to mitigate stress-related substance use or whether  
integrated pastoral–psychological care is necessary to promote student well-being. Guided by the holistic  
education principles of Ellen G. White and George Knight, the study emphasizes the need for institutional models  
that intentionally combine spiritual nurture with professional psychological support within Christian higher  
education.  
Research Objectives  
The specific objectives of this study are to:  
1. Assess the extent to which academic stress predicts alcohol and marijuana use among students in Christian  
universities in Zambia.  
2. Examine the relationship between academic stress and mental health outcomes, particularly anxiety and  
depressive symptoms, among students.  
3. Explore institutional challenges Christian universities face in addressing student substance use and mental  
health concerns.  
4. Evaluate the adequacy of existing pastoral and spiritual interventions in supporting student psychological  
well-being.  
5. Recommend evidence-based, faith-integrated institutional strategies for preventing substance abuse and  
strengthening mental health care systems in Christian universities.  
Research Question  
How does academic stress influence alcohol and marijuana use among students in Zambian Christian universities,  
and how can these institutions implement integrated pastoral–psychological interventions to effectively address  
students’ spiritual, academic, and mental health needs?  
Limitations  
This study has several limitations that should be considered when interpreting the findings. First, the geographic  
scope of the study was limited to selected Christian universities in Lusaka, Central, Eastern, and Southern  
Provinces. While these institutions represent major faith-based universities in Zambia, the findings may not be  
generalizable to all Christian universities nationwide, nor to public universities or secondary schools. As such,  
conclusions should be interpreted within the specific context of Zambian Christian higher education.  
Second, the study relied partly on self-reported data for academic stress, mental health symptoms, and substance  
use behaviors. Self-reporting is vulnerable to social desirability bias and recall inaccuracies, especially given the  
moral and institutional culture within Christian universities, where disclosure of substance use may carry stigma.  
Although anonymity and confidentiality were assured and validated instruments were used, the possibility of  
underreporting alcohol and marijuana use cannot be eliminated.  
Third, the cross-sectional design limits causal inference. While strong statistical associations were found  
between academic stress and substance use, temporal relationships cannot be established. It is therefore not  
possible to determine conclusively whether academic stress caused substance use, or whether substance use  
contributed to academic stress and psychological distress. Longitudinal studies are recommended to better  
establish directionality and causal pathways.  
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Fourth, although demographic information was collected, this study did not fully explore how gender,  
socioeconomic status, and family background may moderate the relationship between academic stress and  
substance use. These variables are known to influence vulnerability to mental health challenges and should be  
investigated in future studies in order to develop more targeted and context-sensitive intervention strategies.  
Finally, while the study highlights gaps in mental health service provision within Christian universities, it offers  
limited empirical analysis of the institutional and structural barriers that constrain the implementation of  
professional counseling services. Variables such as funding structures, staffing models, organizational culture,  
and policy frameworks were beyond the scope of this investigation but warrant further institutional-level  
research.  
Despite these limitations, the study provides robust evidence of a significant relationship between academic  
stress and substance use and contributes novel insights into the mental health challenges facing Christian  
universities in Zambia. Its strength lies in integrating empirical data with theological and psychosocial analysis,  
offering a foundation for future research and policy development in faith-based higher education.  
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY (IMPROVED AND SYNCHRONIZED)  
Research Design  
This study adopted a convergent mixed-methods design, integrating quantitative survey data with qualitative  
interview insights to generate a comprehensive understanding of the relationship between academic stress,  
psychological distress, and substance use among students in Christian universities in Zambia.  
In this design, quantitative and qualitative data were collected concurrently, analyzed separately, and then  
merged during interpretation. This triangulation enhanced the study’s validity by allowing numerical trends from  
the survey to be interpreted in light of lived experiences expressed through interviews. The approach also  
strengthened reliability by confirming patterns across multiple data sources.  
Study Sites  
Data collection occurred across three key provinces in Zambia, each offering distinct socio-cultural and  
educational contexts:  
Lusaka Province – an urban, economically diverse environment with high student mobility and exposure  
to varied stressors.  
Eastern Province – predominantly rural and agricultural, providing a contrasting socio-economic  
background.  
Southern Province – characterized by cultural diversity and a mixture of rural and peri-urban communities.  
The participating institutions were:  
Rusangu University – recognized for its strong community engagement and Christian educational  
philosophy.  
Eden University – notable for health and social science programs and active student services.  
DMI–St. Eugene University – known for its holistic and socially oriented educational mission.  
Selecting institutions across diverse locations enhanced representativeness and strengthened external validity.  
Sample and Sampling Procedures  
A total of 412 participants were involved in the wider institutional study from the three Christian universities.  
However, only those providing analyzable data were included in formal quantitative or qualitative statistical  
processes.  
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Quantitative Sample  
A subsample of 42 students completed the structured questionnaire that examined academic stress, anxiety,  
depression, alcohol use, and marijuana use.  
Stratified random sampling was employed to ensure proportional representation across academic years,  
gender, and institutions.  
Qualitative Sample  
A purposively selected group of 12 participants provided in-depth qualitative data through interviews and focus  
group discussions.  
This group included:  
Students  
Counselors  
Chaplains  
Administrators  
Participants were selected based on their direct roles in academic life, student support, and pastoral care. Their  
involvement provided rich experiential insight into institutional responses to student stress and substance use.  
Justification for Combined Sampling Strategy  
Stratified random sampling increased representativeness and reduced sampling bias in the student survey.  
Purposive sampling ensured the inclusion of key informants with professional insight into counseling,  
disciplinary processes, and spiritual care-elements central to the Christian university context.  
Together, these strategies enhanced methodological rigor by balancing breadth with depth.  
Instruments  
Several validated instruments and tools were used:  
1. Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) – measured participants’ stress levels.  
2. Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) – assessed alcohol use patterns and risk levels.  
3. Self-administered student questionnaire – collected demographic variables, study experiences, and  
behavioral information.  
4. Semi-structured interviews – generated qualitative insights into student wellbeing, coping mechanisms,  
and institutional support structures.  
The combined use of standardized scales and open-ended interviews allowed the study to capture both  
measurable constructs and contextualized narratives of student experience.  
Data Analysis  
Quantitative Analysis  
Quantitative data were analyzed using SPSS v26, a powerful statistical software widely used in research for data  
analysis. The following procedures were carried out to ensure a comprehensive understanding of the  
relationships between various psychological factors and substance use:  
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First, descriptive statistics were computed, which included frequencies and percentages to summarize the data  
effectively. This initial step provided a clear overview of the demographic characteristics of the sample  
population, such as age, gender, and educational background, allowing for a better understanding of the context  
in which the study was conducted.  
Next, a correlational analysis was performed to explore the relationships between academic stress, anxiety,  
depression, and substance use. This analysis aimed to identify how these psychological factors interact with each  
other and contribute to behavioral outcomes, such as the consumption of substances. For instance, researchers  
sought to determine whether higher levels of academic stress correlated with increased anxiety and subsequently  
led to higher rates of substance use among students.  
Finally, a multiple regression analysis was conducted to identify significant predictors of alcohol and marijuana  
use among the participants. This advanced statistical technique allowed for the examination of multiple variables  
simultaneously, helping to isolate the effects of stress and emotional distress on substance use behavior. The  
results of these analyses indicated that stress and emotional distress variables emerged as the strongest predictors  
of substance use behavior, highlighting the critical role that mental health plays in influencing students' choices  
regarding alcohol and marijuana consumption.  
Qualitative Analysis  
Demographic Analysis  
Table 1. Sample Characteristics (Descriptive Profile)  
Variable  
Gender  
Category  
Male  
n
%
24  
18  
29  
8
57.1%  
42.9%  
69.0%  
19.1%  
11.9%  
45.2%  
26.2%  
19.1%  
9.5%  
Female  
18–20  
Age Group  
21–23  
24+  
5
1st Year  
19  
11  
8
Year of Study  
2nd Year  
3rd Year  
4th Year+  
On-campus  
Off-campus  
Scholarship/Financial Aid  
Self-financed  
Two-parent  
Single-parent/Guardian  
4
28  
14  
10  
32  
18  
24  
66.7%  
33.3%  
23.8%  
76.2%  
42.9%  
57.1%  
Residence  
Socioeconomic Proxy  
Family Background  
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Students  
42  
100%  
100%  
—
Quantitative Sample  
Qualitative Sample  
Sampling Approach  
Students + staff informants  
Stratified random & purposive  
12  
Applied  
Demographic Interpretation  
Male students exhibited higher substance use tendencies, which may be attributed to various social and  
environmental factors that encourage risk-taking behaviors among young men. These factors can include  
peer pressure, cultural norms that promote drinking and drug use, and a greater inclination towards  
experimentation during the college years. In contrast, female students presented higher levels of emotional  
distress, often stemming from societal expectations, academic pressures, and interpersonal relationship  
challenges that disproportionately affect women.  
Furthermore, younger students, particularly those in their first and second years, reported experiencing  
higher levels of academic stress that are often linked to the transition challenges they face when adjusting  
to college life. This period of adjustment can be particularly daunting as these students navigate new  
academic demands, social environments, and the responsibilities of independent living.  
Additionally, students from single-parent homes and those living off-campus showed greater vulnerability  
to risky behaviors. This vulnerability can be attributed to reduced supervision and pastoral contact, which  
often leads to a lack of guidance and support systems. Without the structure that comes from living at home  
or having regular access to mentoring, these students may be more prone to engage in behaviors that  
jeopardize their well-being, such as substance use and other risky activities.  
Table 2. Sample Composition by Analysis Group  
(Structure retained for future insertion of actual mean scores)  
Group  
n (Stress)  
n (Anxiety)  
n (Depression)  
n (Alcohol Use)  
n (Marijuana Use)  
Male  
24  
18  
30  
12  
28  
14  
10  
32  
24  
18  
30  
12  
28  
14  
10  
32  
24  
18  
30  
12  
28  
14  
10  
32  
24  
18  
30  
12  
28  
14  
10  
32  
24  
18  
30  
12  
28  
14  
10  
32  
Female  
1st–2nd Year  
3rd–4th Year  
On-campus  
Off-campus  
Financial Aid  
Self-financed  
Table 3. Predictors of Substance Use (Regression Summary)  
Predictor  
Alcohol Use (β)  
Significant  
p
Marijuana Use (β) p  
Academic Stress  
Anxiety  
***  
***  
Significant  
Significant  
***  
***  
Significant  
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Depression  
Significant  
***  
Significant  
***  
Male Gender  
ns  
ns  
ns  
ns  
.214  
.331  
.167  
.298  
ns  
ns  
ns  
ns  
.289  
.402  
.251  
.344  
Off-campus Residence  
Financial Strain  
Senior Year Status  
Note: *p < .001; ns = non-significant  
Model Interpretation  
In the realm of substance use, academic stress, anxiety, and depression have emerged as the most significant  
predictors of both alcohol and marijuana consumption among students. For instance, individuals facing high  
levels of academic pressure often resort to alcohol or marijuana as coping mechanisms, seeking relief from their  
overwhelming feelings of stress and anxiety. While demographic variables such as age, gender, and  
socioeconomic status did not reach statistical significance in this particular study, it is important to note that they  
may still play crucial moderating roles in future, larger-scale studies. These demographic factors could influence  
the relationship between mental health and substance use, potentially revealing more nuanced insights into how  
various groups are affected differently. Further research is needed to understand these dynamics and the  
complexities of substance use among diverse populations.  
Policy Implications for Christian Universities in Zambia  
The demographic risk gradients observed necessitate differentiated, faith-integrated interventions rather than  
uniform programming.  
Institutional Recommendations:  
1. Risk-Targeted Care  
Males: This approach emphasizes the importance of establishing prevention groups that can foster peer  
accountability among male students. These groups not only provide a platform for support but also  
encourage healthy behavioral choices and open discussions about mental health challenges.  
Females: For female students, the focus is on trauma-informed counseling, which recognizes the unique  
experiences and challenges faced by women. This type of counseling is designed to create a safe space  
where females can process their experiences and develop coping strategies tailored to their needs.  
For early-years students, academic and spiritual transition programs are essential to help them navigate  
significant educational and personal changes. They support adaptation and spiritual growth.  
Financial-risk students: Counseling services should be embedded within bursary offices to provide  
targeted support for financially at-risk students. This integration ensures that students facing financial  
stress receive both financial and emotional guidance, which can enhance their overall wellbeing.  
2. Integrated Pastoral–Psychological Model  
This model advocates for joint case management between chaplains and counselors, facilitating a holistic  
approach to student care. Combining spiritual and psychological support addresses students' mental,  
emotional, and spiritual needs.  
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Shared intake tools are utilized to streamline the process of assessing student needs. These tools allow  
both chaplains and counselors to gather relevant information efficiently, ensuring that students receive  
the most appropriate support from the outset.  
Additionally, faith-sensitive therapy modules are incorporated into counseling practices. These modules  
respect and integrate students' spiritual beliefs into their therapeutic journey, which promotes a sense of  
belonging and understanding.  
3. Workforce & Infrastructure  
To effectively support the mental health needs of students, a minimum staffing ratio of one counselor for  
every 1,000 students is recommended. This ratio ensures that students have access to timely and  
personalized counseling services.  
Creating confidential counseling spaces is crucial for fostering an environment where students feel safe  
and comfortable discussing sensitive issues. These designated areas should be easily accessible while  
maintaining privacy to encourage open dialogue.  
Furthermore, emergency mental-health protocols must be established to respond swiftly to crises. These  
protocols are essential for ensuring that students in urgent need of support receive immediate attention,  
thereby preventing potential escalation of mental health issues.  
4. Family & Community Partnerships  
Engaging parents in the mental health support process is vital. By fostering parent engagement, schools  
can create a collaborative environment where families feel empowered to participate in their children's  
wellbeing.  
Developing church referral networks can also be beneficial, as many students may find comfort and  
support within their faith communities. These networks can facilitate connections between students and  
spiritual leaders who can provide additional guidance.  
Moreover, establishing alumni mentorship programs can provide current students with relatable role  
models who have successfully navigated similar challenges. Alumni can offer valuable insights and  
encouragement, significantly enhancing the support system available to students.  
5. Data Monitoring  
Conducting annual student wellbeing audits is essential for assessing the effectiveness of mental health  
initiatives. These audits allow institutions to gather data on student experiences and identify areas for  
improvement.  
Moreover, implementing senate-level reporting ensures that mental health issues are prioritized at the  
highest levels of institutional governance. This reporting mechanism fosters accountability and  
encourages continuous improvement in mental health services provided to students.  
Quantitative Findings  
Empirical Evidence on Academic Stress and Substance Abuse Among Students  
A growing body of empirical research across Africa and globally demonstrates a strong and consistent  
association between academic stress and substance use among adolescents and university students. Academic  
pressures increase substance use among students in low and middle-income countries [examination anxiety,  
heavy workloads, competition, and poor coping skills] (Pascoe, Hetrick, & Parker, 2020; Taylor, 2010).  
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In the Zambian context, school-based surveys reveal an alarming rise in substance use among adolescents.  
Chinyama, Mweemba, and Lukwesa (2020) found that 17% of secondary school students reported recent alcohol  
consumption, while 11% used marijuana, with academic frustration and peer influence identified as major  
predictors. Complementary evidence from the Ministry of Health’s STEPS Survey shows that harmful alcohol  
use is increasing among young adults, intensifying concerns for students transitioning from secondary school  
into tertiary institutions (Ministry of Health, 2018).  
Regional evidence reinforces these trends. A cross-country assessment in 26 African nations found university  
students often misuse alcohol, smoke cigarettes, and use marijuana to cope with academic and emotional distress  
(Peltzer & Pengpid, 2016). Research conducted in Uganda yields similar results, reporting that academic  
pressure, emotional strain, and school stressors significantly predict alcohol and marijuana use among boys and  
girls (Nalukenge et al., 2016). In Ghana, Doku (2012) demonstrated that adolescents who use substances are  
more likely to engage in risky behaviors like unprotected sex, which indicates broader psychosocial implications.  
The link between stress and substance use is also supported by psychological and neurobiological evidence.  
Chronic stress dysregulates cortisol levels, heightens emotional reactivity, and impairs decision-making, thus  
increasing vulnerability to drug-seeking behavior (Sinha, 2008). The self-medication hypothesis further explains  
how students under academic strain may use substances to relieve anxiety, enhance mood, or temporarily escape  
academic demands (Khantzian, 1997). Bandura’s social learning theory adds that students exposed to peers who  
use substances-especially within stressful school environments-are more likely to model such behavior (Bandura,  
1977).  
Additional research highlights mental health-related barriers that contribute to substance use. Hunt and Eisenberg  
(2010) found that students experiencing stress often do not seek psychological support due to stigma, limited  
resources, or fear of judgment. This finding is echoed in Zambia, where Margarate Nzala Munakampe (2016)  
identified stigma, inadequate counseling personnel, and weak mental health structures as key barriers preventing  
students from accessing help, thus increasing susceptibility to unhealthy coping strategies.  
Intervention-focused studies show promising outcomes. Stress management training programs have been found  
to significantly reduce both stress levels and substance use tendencies among university students (Rettig, 2019).  
Family-based therapy programs also demonstrate effectiveness in reducing adolescent drug use, especially when  
academic stress is a contributing factor (Liddle, 2010). Community-based prevention initiatives likewise reduce  
harmful alcohol use through psychoeducation, school-community partnerships, and enforcement of substance  
control policies (Holder, 2004).  
In summary, the empirical evidence reveals a clear pattern: academic stress significantly increases the risk of  
substance abuse, and this risk is further amplified by emotional distress, peer influence, inadequate mental health  
systems, and a lack of psychosocial support. Strengthening mental health programs, enhancing school-based  
prevention interventions, and improving coping skills training remain essential strategies to mitigate substance  
use risks among students.  
Qualitative Themes  
1. Stress as a Trigger for Substance Use  
Students reported using alcohol and marijuana to “calm down,” “clear the mind,” or “escape pressure,” reflecting  
Khantzian’s (1997) Self-Medication Hypothesis. This is most pronounced during exams or demanding  
coursework, where academic pressure and social expectations drive students to seek relief through substance  
use. This highlights the need for coping strategies and holistic interventions that address psychological and  
spiritual needs. For instance, integrating mindfulness practices and stress management workshops into the  
academic curriculum provides students with healthier alternatives for managing stress.  
2. Peer Influence and Substance Accessibility  
Peer modeling and easy access to substances were cited as major contributors to alcohol and marijuana use  
among students. Bandura’s (1977) Social Learning Theory explains that individuals tend to emulate behaviors  
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observed in peers, particularly in social environments where substance use is normalized and even celebrated.  
For example, many college parties and gatherings involve alcohol, making it hard for students to resist peer  
pressure. Furthermore, regional studies further confirm that availability and community norms significantly  
influence student behavior (Peltzer & Pengpid, 2016). The normalization of substance use within certain social  
circles creates a harmful cycle in which students feel compelled to partake to fit in or be accepted, leading to  
increased usage rates.  
3. Weak Counseling Systems  
Overburdened guidance staff, lack of training, and absence of private counseling spaces reflect systemic  
challenges in Zambia’s educational mental health infrastructure (Kapungwe,et al., 2010). Many students often  
lack access to professionals capable of effectively addressing substance use issues, which contributes to a culture  
of silence around these challenges. This reality highlights the urgent need for integrated counseling services  
combining spiritual guidance with evidence-based psychological support. For example, establishing dedicated  
mental health programs within educational institutions that focus not only on academic success but also on  
emotional and spiritual well-being could play a crucial role in supporting students. Additionally, training existing  
staff to recognize and respond to substance use concerns would strengthen the support network available to  
students, fostering a more nurturing educational environment.  
Extended Discussion: Christian University Context  
Christian universities face a variety of unique and complex challenges that can significantly impact their student  
populations. Many students arrive on campus carrying unresolved emotional or behavioral issues, which often  
stem from diverse and sometimes difficult backgrounds. These backgrounds may include experiences of trauma,  
family instability, or socioeconomic hardships that have not been adequately addressed. Unfortunately,  
institutions often prioritize chapel attendance and moral instruction over comprehensive psychological  
counseling services, which can leave underlying issues unaddressed and unresolved. This lack of focus on mental  
health can lead to a cycle of distress that affects both academic performance and personal well-being.  
Moreover, there exists minimal collaboration between chaplains and mental health professionals within these  
institutions, creating significant gaps in the holistic support that students require. This disconnection can hinder  
the development of integrated support systems that address the spiritual, emotional, and psychological needs of  
students simultaneously. Compounding these issues is the stigma surrounding mental health, which is sometimes  
fueled by misinterpreted religious beliefs. In many cases, students may feel discouraged from seeking help  
because they perceive psychological support as a sign of weak faith or a lack of spiritual fortitude. This stigma  
can exacerbate feelings of isolation and lead to maladaptive coping strategies, such as avoidance or substance  
use.  
Research has shown that integrated pastoral-psychological approaches are often the most effective means of  
addressing these challenges (Tan, 2011; Koenig, 2012; Aten et al., 2019). These approaches combine spiritual  
guidance with psychological support, thereby fostering an environment in which students feel safe to explore  
their emotional and mental health needs. Ellen G. White emphasizes the importance of educating the “mental,  
moral, and spiritual faculties” (White, 1903, p. 35), highlighting the need for a well-rounded approach to  
education. Additionally, George Knight underscores that holistic Adventist education balances spiritual,  
academic, and emotional development (Knight, 2000). These principles offer a robust framework for designing  
interventions that directly address academic stress, substance use, and mental health within Christian higher  
education. By embracing these integrated strategies, institutions can foster environments that promote academic  
success and nurture the overall well-being of their students.  
Practical Solutions for Christian Universities  
1. Establish Mental Health and Wellness Centres  
Mental health centers are essential for student well-being. These centers should include psychologists, chaplains,  
and social workers to provide holistic support for students’ mental, emotional, and spiritual needs. Research  
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indicates that such collaborative approaches significantly improve mental health outcomes and reduce substance  
abuse among young adults (Hunt & Eisenberg, 2010). Ellen G. White emphasizes that “mental, moral, and  
spiritual faculties must all be educated” (White, 1903, p. 35), underscoring a well-rounded educational approach.  
Knight stresses balancing spiritual formation with emotional and intellectual development to equip students for  
modern life (Knight, 2000).  
2. Mandatory Stress Management Programs  
Implementing stress management programs, particularly during orientation, is crucial as they equip students with  
essential coping skills and resilience strategies necessary for navigating the challenges of university life. These  
interventions reduce stress and risky behaviors like substance abuse and academic underperformance (Rettig,  
2019). Knight highlights the importance of practical life training alongside intellectual and spiritual formation,  
as it prepares students for real-world challenges and helps them develop a strong foundation for their future  
endeavors (Knight, 2000, p. 42).  
3. Integrate Spirituality with Professional Counseling  
Collaboration between chaplains and psychologists is vital in preventing “spiritual bypassing,” ensuring that  
spiritual guidance complements, rather than replaces, psychological support. This integrated approach enhances  
recovery and promotes well-being. Addressing spiritual and mental health needs helps students recover  
effectively (Koenig, 2012). White underscores that “religious instruction must be combined with the right  
education of the faculties” (White, 1903, p. Reinforcing the need for spiritual and professional collaboration,  
this system fosters comprehensive student support.  
4. Peer Support Programs  
Peer-led recovery and mentorship initiatives empower students to support one another, thereby fostering  
resilience, accountability, and a sense of community among them. Peer-support programs strengthen coping  
skills, reduce substance use, and create a safe environment (White, 2007). White further notes that “good  
examples and mutual encouragement strengthen character” (White, 1903, p. 120), highlighting the vital role of  
community in shaping positive student behavior and promoting a culture of support.  
5. Restorative Disciplinary Approaches  
Focusing on healing and personal growth, restorative approaches prioritize counseling, mentorship, and family  
engagement over punitive measures. Research demonstrates that such methods promote accountability, personal  
development, and stronger community ties. This fosters learning and growth (Braithwaite, 2000). Knight  
emphasizes “discipline must be educational, forming habits of responsibility and moral discernment” (Knight,  
2000, p. 55), which is essential for cultivating a responsible and ethical student body.  
6. Family Engagement  
Involving families in students’ academic and personal development is crucial for strengthening recovery and  
reinforcing moral guidance. Active parental involvement provides students with a support system that extends  
beyond the university; family-based interventions mitigate substance misuse and encourage salutary behaviors  
(Liddle, 2010). White affirms that family engagement is critical, noting that parental guidance shapes moral  
character and instills values that carry through to adulthood (White, 1903, p. 133).  
7. Regulate Environmental Risk Factors  
Minimize exposure to high-risk situations by monitoring student living environments, including hostels, and  
restricting access to alcohol. Universities can reduce substance abuse and risky behaviors by creating safe,  
structured spaces that promote healthy living (Holder, 2004). This proactive approach to student safety ensures  
that environments are conducive to both academic success and personal well-being.  
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8. Life Skills and Emotional Intelligence Courses  
Courses that develop life skills, emotional intelligence, and coping mechanisms are crucial in helping students  
manage stress, regulate their emotions, and navigate challenges effectively. These programs are designed to  
reduce substance misuse and enhance overall resilience and personal growth, equipping students with tools for  
success in various aspects of life (Schutte et al., 2007). White emphasizes that “all faculties must be trained to  
act under right principles” (White, 1903, p. 39), reinforcing the value of equipping students for balanced and  
principled living, ensuring that they are well prepared for the complexities of adult life.  
CONCLUSION  
This study confirms that academic stress is a significant predictor of alcohol and marijuana use among Zambian  
students and is closely associated with anxiety, depression, and poor academic functioning. The problem is  
particularly evident in Christian universities, where students experience pressure from both academic rigor and  
expectations of moral transformation, often lacking adequate mental health infrastructure.  
The findings challenge the assumption that spirituality alone can address psychological distress. Instead, the  
integration of Ellen G. White’s educational philosophy with contemporary psychological practice underscores  
that spiritual instruction must be complemented by structured emotional support and professional care. Without  
trained mental health personnel, institutions risk treating addiction as a moral failure rather than as a public  
health and pastoral concern requiring compassionate and informed intervention.  
A holistic intervention framework is recommended to address these challenges, including counseling units,  
collaboration between chaplains and mental health professionals, life skills education, peer mentorship, and  
family engagement strategies. To strengthen student resilience, additional institutional measures are essential,  
such as stress management programs, restorative disciplinary approaches, and regulation of environmental risk  
factors.  
Christian universities can boost academic excellence, spiritual growth, and well-being by implementing these  
reforms. Integrating faith based education with evidence based mental health practices provides a sustainable  
model for long-term success. It addresses substance abuse, nurtures individuals, and strengthens Christian higher  
education within Zambia.  
Finally, this study reveals fresh evidence of stress causing substance abuse among students in Zambian faith-  
based universities. It recommends institutional reforms and presents a model bridging theology and psychology  
in African Christian higher education.  
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