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Evaluation of Occupational Health and Safety Implementation
Protocols of the Mining and Petroleum Industries in Ghana
Justice Badam Parmaak., Prof. Ogbonna Friday Joel., Prof. Kwasi Opoku Boadu
The University of Port Harcourt, World Bank Africa Centre of Excellence in Oil Field Chemicals
Research (Ace-Cefor)
DOI: https://doi.org/10.51244/IJRSI.2025.1215PH000172
Received: 04 October 2025; Accepted: 10 October 2025; Published: 07 November 2025
ABSTRACT
Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) is still a priority in extractive industries, as hazardous conditions are a
threat both to workers' well-being and productivity. The research took into account the implementation of OHS
procedures in the petroleum and mining sectors in Ghana, with specific reference to awareness, infrastructure
in place, level of application, and limitation. The study was a cross-sectional study in a sample size of 286
respondents, comprising 143 petroleum workers and 143 mining workers. Descriptive statistics and chi-square
tests were employed in data analysis on OHS awareness, training, and application infrastructure relationships.
Results indicated satisfactory awareness levels in both industries, with 88.1% in mining and 79.7% in
petroleum acknowledging knowledge of policies of that sort. However, fewer among the respondents verified
availability in written form (57.3% in mining; 53.1% in petroleum). Frequency in receiving training was
strongly associated with levels of awareness (χ² = 18.439, p < 0.001), with a frequency once a year being most
dominant in both industries. The frequency in having OHS committees was also significantly different across
industries (χ² = 12.725, p = 0.002), with mining reporting a higher presence. Despite that, communication gaps,
policy adequacy, and support by the management still existed, limiting effective implementation.
The study finds that OHS knowledge is widespread, yet systemic weaknesses in the form of poor training,
weak managerial commitment, and poor resourcing forestall effective implementation. Enhancing the
frequency of training, communication of policy, managerial accountability, and regulatory enforcement are
crucial in promoting workplace safety. This study makes a contribution by presenting empirical evidence on
OHS implementation in the extractive sectors in Ghana and points out industry-wide reforms as essential.
Keywords: Occupational Health and Safety, mining, petroleum
INTRODUCTION
Background of Study
In today's competitive corporate environment, business entities constantly have to deal with the increasingly
evolving demands of accelerating product development and technological changes, staying ahead of
the competition with rival businesses, deregulation and demographic changes in target markets, and the
obvious need to survive by implementing policies and programs to cope with the ever-changing work
environment (Cole, 2014). The issue of a safe and conducive workplace environment has recently gained
prominence because labor experts believe that occupational health and safety measures are necessary to
continue industrial production (Bentil, 2018).
The mining and petroleum industries are some of the most hazardous places to work in, where workers are
often exposed to various physical, chemical, mechanical, biological, and psychosocial hazards (Aram et al.,
2021). Ghana started producing oil in commercial quantities in 2009 under the Mills regime. Since then, the
country has grown to become one of the significant oil producers in the continent, with the influx of heavy
investments from several multinational oil and gas companies in the exploration and downstream petroleum
sectors (Ablo, 2017). In the mining sector, the country since the pre-colonial era has been known to be a haven
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of mineral resources. According to Owiredu (2018), Ghana has become a popular destination for mineral
investment; with the legitimate mining industry accounting for more than 49% of the country's gross foreign
exchange earnings.
Mining and oil exploration activities present the country with not only economic opportunities but also
significant challenges, particularly in the area of occupational health and safety (OHS) for employees working
in these industries. The significance of healthy workplaces is recognized worldwide as a broad concept
influencing the quality of life of workers, and to a large extent, can have implications for public health
(Helliwell & Putnam, 2018). Occupational health and safety (OSH) is a multidisciplinary concept focused on
ensuring the promotion of health and safety among employees through the implementation of policies and
protocols that minimize risks of injuries or accidents at the workplace (Bhagawati, 2015). It encompasses the
worker's mental, emotional, and physical well-being concerning the conduct of his work and, as a result, is a
critical topic of interest that has a positive impact on the achievement of organizational goals (Amponsah-
Tawiah & Dartey-Baah, 2011). Data available show startlingly high rates of work-related deaths and injuries in
both developed and developing countries. The (International Labour Organization (2021) estimates that 2.3
million people die each year owing to work-related accidents or illness, and 350,000 of these deaths are
attributable to occupational accidents. Furthermore, there 264 million non-fatal accidents occur each year
resulting in work-related illnesses and approximately 3 days of absence from work (ILO, 2017).
The mining and petroleum industries contribute significantly to the Ghanaian economy. The mining industry
contributes about 16% of the country's GDP and employs a large number of people, whereas the petroleum
industry is relatively new but has significant growth potential (Aram et al., 2021). However, these industries
are inherently dangerous, and workers face a variety of hazards that can result in injuries, illnesses, or death.
Several studies have highlighted the importance of OHS protocols in Ghana's mining and petroleum industries.
For example, Stemn (2019) found that mining accidents and injuries were a major cause of work-related
fatalities in Ghana. The study revealed that between 2010 and 2016, about 34% of all fatal occupational
accidents occurred in the mining sector. Similarly, Opoku et al., (2020) discovered that workers in the mining
and petroleum industry were subjected to a variety of hazards, including toxic chemicals, fires, and explosions,
with injury rates among mine workers reported to be higher than other major mining countries, such as
Australia and the USA. The research bemoaned the poor state of occupational safety management practices in
sites surveyed due to a lack of awareness and inadequate implementation of safety protocols but failed to
provide a detailed comparison of the safety performance of Ghana's mining and oil industry with those of other
countries.
These studies emphasize the critical need for companies in the mineral and petroleum resources exploration
space to continuously develop and implement OHS protocols to ensure the safety and health of workers in the
mining and petroleum industries in Ghana. The implementation of these protocols requires a concerted effort
by industry stakeholders, including the government, employers, workers, and regulatory agencies.
In recent years, there have been notable efforts by various organizations to promote OHS in the mining and
petroleum industries in Ghana. The International Labour Organization (ILO) has been involved in several
initiatives aimed at improving OHS in these industries. The organization has collaborated with the government
of Ghana and other stakeholders to develop OHS policies and guidelines for the mining and petroleum
industries (ILO, 2017). The ILO has also provided technical support to the Ghanaian government in the
development of a National Occupational Safety and Health Policy (ILO, 2015).
The Ghana Chamber of Mines, an industry association for mining companies in Ghana, has also been involved
in promoting OHS in the mining industry. The chamber has developed a code of conduct for its members,
which includes provisions for OHS management (Ghana Chamber of Mines, 2014). The chamber also
organizes annual safety awards to recognize mining companies that have demonstrated exceptional
commitment to OHS.
The petroleum industry in Ghana is regulated by the Petroleum Commission, which is responsible for ensuring
that OHS protocols are implemented by industry players. The commission has developed regulations that
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require petroleum companies to have OHS policies and procedures in place (Petroleum Commission, 2015).
The commission also conducts regular inspections of petroleum facilities to ensure compliance with OHS
regulations.
Despite the many efforts to promote OHS, accidents and work-related injuries are a daily occurrence in these
highly hazardous industries. Numerous studies have been carried out on this subject but much of the research
has concentrated on assessing the relationship between mine workers’ perception of adequate organizational
commitment to occupational health and safety management and work output (Amponsah-Tawiah & Mensah,
2016), the impact of physical well-being on the affective commitment of employees (Liu et al., 2020), and the
mediating role of safety knowledge in the relationship between Occupational Health and Safety Management
Frameworks (OHSMF) and workplace accidents and injuries among workers in oil and gas industries (Liu et
al., 2020). This study aims to evaluate the implementation of OHS protocols in the mining and petroleum
industries in Ghana. The study will use a mixed-methods approach, including surveys and interviews with
industry stakeholders, to assess the effectiveness of OHS protocols in these industries.
Statement of the Problem
Despite the establishment of occupational health and safety (OHS) protocols across Ghana’s mining and
petroleum industries, the actual implementation and understanding of these guidelines remain critically
inadequate. Workers in these sectors frequently lack sufficient awareness and comprehension of the very
standards designed to protect them. According to Liu et al. (2020), the absence of adequate safety knowledge
among employees serves as a key mediating factor between safety policy frameworks and accident prevalence.
This disconnect between policy existence and employee awareness has contributed to the persistence of
workplace injuries, illnesses, and fatalities, indicating that OHS systems in these industries are not achieving
their intended protective outcomes.
Moreover, the implementation of OHS protocols is often ineffective due to several systemic and human factors
challenges. For instance, Ablo (2017) highlighted how the lack of robust enterprise development and local
content integration often results in compromised safety standards, especially in rapidly evolving petroleum
environments. In the mining sector, regulatory enforcement is sometimes weak, leading to significant gaps in
adherence to safety measures. These failures not only endanger worker lives but also reduce productivity and
impose financial and reputational costs on companies and the nation.
In both sectors, there are overlapping safety challenges such as insufficient training, poor hazard
communication, and inadequate use of personal protective equipment (PPE). Yet, these commonalities are
rarely explored in a comparative manner, leaving potential policy synergies untapped. Additionally, the
differences in how OHS protocols are operationalized in mining versus oil and gas extraction sites are not well
understood, further complicating the work of oversight bodies such as the Minerals Commission and the
Petroleum Commission. This lack of clarity weakens regulatory harmonization, data sharing, and coordinated
response to occupational hazards.
Ultimately, the problem is not simply the presence or absence of protocols but the ineffective translation of
these frameworks into practice, a challenge compounded by organizational, cultural, and institutional inertia. If
left unaddressed, these gaps may continue to undermine worker safety, frustrate regulatory efforts, and erode
confidence in Ghana’s resource-based sectors. Therefore, a detailed investigation into the awareness,
implementation effectiveness, shared safety issues, and comparative execution of OHS protocols in the mining
and petroleum sectors is urgently required to guide evidence-based reforms.
Objectives of the study
The aim of the study is to evaluate the effectiveness of the implementation of occupational health and safety
protocols in selected companies in the mining and petroleum sectors.
To achieve this, the research seeks to address the following specific objectives:
I. To assess the level of awareness and understanding of OHS protocols among workers in the mining and
petroleum industries in Ghana.
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II. To evaluate the effectiveness of OHS protocols in reducing the incidence of work-related injuries,
illnesses, and fatalities in the mining and petroleum industries in Ghana.
III. To identify OHS issues that are common to both the mining and petroleum industries in Ghana
IV. To do a comparative evaluation of OHS implementation in the Oil and Mining Industry.
Research Questions
The following questions are framed to guide the study;
I. What is the level of awareness and understanding of OHS protocols among workers in the mining and
petroleum industries in Ghana?
II. What are the OHS protocols currently operational in companies in mining and petroleum companies in
Ghana?
III. To what extent have OHS protocols been effective in reducing the incidence of work-related injuries,
illnesses, and fatalities in the mining and petroleum industries in Ghana?
IV. What are the key challenges and barriers to the implementation of OHS protocols in the mining and
petroleum industries?
Significance of the study
The study will contribute to enhancing workers’ safety in these industries by identifying any major challenges
and barriers to the smooth implementation of OHS protocols in the mining and petroleum industries that will
be surveyed. The study’s findings will be shared with Labour Commission and other relevant stakeholders to
inform policy and practice by suggesting strategies for overcoming these barriers and promoting the effective
implementation of OHS protocols. It is hoped that the research will provide guidance to employers and
regulatory agencies on the most effective approaches to ensuring worker safety and health in these industries.
Finally, the study will contribute to the existing body of knowledge on OHS in the mining and petroleum
industries in Ghana. The study findings will fill the gaps identified in previous research and inform future
research which may lead and to the development of effective policies and practices that promote worker safety
and health in these industries.
Chapter Organization
This thesis is structured into six chapters. Chapter one covers the background of the study, the problem
statement, the study's objectives and research questions, significance/rationale for the study, and the scope of
the research. Chapter two extensively covers the literature review, focusing on theoretical review as well as
empirical studies related to the specific research objectives. Chapter three provides methodological approaches
used to carry out the study. Chapter Four presents the results as obtained from a thorough analysis of the data,
while Chapter five provides in-depth discussions and interpretations of the results. Lastly, Chapter six
concludes the thesis with conclusions and recommendations derived from the analysis and discussions.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) is a vital component of industrial operations, particularly within high-
risk sectors such as mining and petroleum. In Ghana, these sectors contribute significantly to economic
development but are often marred by occupational hazards, accidents, and health challenges due to limited
enforcement of OHS protocols. This chapter synthesizes relevant literature to evaluate OHS implementation in
Ghana’s mining and petroleum sectors, highlighting global and local perspectives, theoretical frameworks,
safety culture, legal frameworks, and challenges to effective implementation.
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According to Shinde & Anjum (2007), the literature review is conducted to explore what is already known
about a subject matter of interest, synthesize findings from published related works, and identify any
knowledge gaps that a proposed research seeks to bridge. A review of empirical literature also helps to
determine how the research can contribute to furthering the understanding of a phenomenon while also
assisting in the development of hypotheses and framing the research question (Gentles et al., 2015). Thus,
findings of related publications on the subject are examined critically, analyzed, and summarized, and gaps
are identified based on study design, sample size, generalization, and context of the study. To retrieve literature
relevant to the research topic, the Boolean method was used to search scientific databases such as Scopus,
Medline, Biomed Central, PubMed, Wiley-online library, AJOL, and EBSCOhost using keywords such as
“occupational safety”, “oil and gas industry”, and “Ghana”.
The articles were scanned and evaluated before selection for the review. The literature was reviewed based on
the study’s objectives. The criteria used for selection included date of publication, evidence, reference, and
whether it was reviewed. For the empirical studies, recent articles published from 2018 upwards were mostly
selected. However, in areas with limited literature, some articles published over ten years were reviewed. The
review begins by developing a theoretical framework that provides a conceptual grounding and linkage for the
main concepts of the study, followed by a review of related literature organized into subsections in line with
the specific objectives of the study.
Theoretical Model Underpinning the Investigation
Three main theories were considered applicable to this study. These include the risk theory/defense-in-depth
theory, the accident model grounded in systems theory, and the actively caring model. These theories were
chosen due to their applicability and relevance within the field of occupational health and safety.
The risk/defense-in-depth theory
The first theoretical model is the risk/defense theory. According to Reason (2010), risk defense in the
organizational work setting passes through various layers of defense, barriers, and safeguards. Reason argues
that adopting a defense-in-depth approach acknowledges the fallibility of all systems and suggests that by
aligning multiple layers of defense, organizations can intercept, slow down, or eliminate risks before they fail.
Similarly, human risk factors exhibit a comparable trajectory, encompassing both active failures and latent
conditions that accumulate over time, often culminating in adverse health outcomes and decreased productivity
within the workplace. Implementing the Defense in Depth theory within an occupational health context
involves exploring four critical layers of health defense, namely pre-employment health screening, health
management (including surveillance, assessments, well-being initiatives, and absenteeism monitoring), injury
management/rehabilitation (Workers' Compensation), and exit medical evaluations. Each of these layers serves
to intercept, slow down, or eliminate risk, thereby reducing the likelihood of failure significantly (ILO, 2016).
However, in many organizations, these four critical health layers are managed by separate departments, leading
to compartmentalized information that is not utilized holistically to enhance health outcomes. Aligning all
health components and establishing communication channels between them becomes essential to unlock
valuable, risk-based information that can greatly improve an organization's ability to identify health risk trends
and proactively address them to mitigate adverse health outcomes and achieve tangible business and employee
benefits. Utilizing the Defense in Depth model within an occupational health framework enables organizations
to establish multiple layers of defense against failure. In the context of occupational health and safety, failure
includes identifiable injuries, loss of productivity due to ill health, or post-employment claims.
The defense in depth model closely resembles the well-known Swiss cheese theory of organizational accidents,
whereby every defense is depicted as one of the ‘slices’ with holes/weaknesses/failure allowing hazard
penetration through all the defenses, kindling incidents. Well-coordinated with overlapping controls, however,
the layers can prevent single-point failure. This system of cascading protection is critical in the high-risk,
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intensively technically sophisticated industries of the sort like mining, petroleum, in which interfacing
technical failure is accompanied by human as well as organizational factors in creating the negative outcomes.
For enforcement in the Ghana context, enforcement of specific layers is commonly fragmented. For instance,
pre-employment screening can take place in isolation from continuous health surveillance or incident-based
rehabilitation. Reflected in your reading of enforcement gaps (Annan et al., 2019; Eyiah et al., 2019),
fragmented practices at the institutional level compromise a defense-in-depth system operating holistically.
Such fragmentation emboldens embedded conditions as well as hurdles in the early identification of risk
patterns, consequently compromising organizational resilience against workplace hazards
The accident model
The underlying philosophy of this model known as the Systems-Theoretic Accident Model and Processes
(STAMP), posits that system theory offers a valuable framework for analyzing accidents, particularly those
involving systemic failures (Ge et al., 2022; Zhang et al., 2021). According to this safety paradigm, accidents
occur when the control system fails to adequately address external disturbances, component failures, or
dysfunctional interactions among system components, thereby leading to insufficient control or enforcement of
safety-related constraints during system development, design, and operation. In this context, the organization
under examination is conceptualized as the system.
Safety is thus conceptualized as a control challenge, managed by a control structure integrated within an
adaptive socio-technical system. The objective of the control structure, represented by the management of the
mining company, is to enforce constraints on both system development (comprising the development process
and resulting system design) and system operation to promote safe behavior. Consequently, understanding the
root causes of accidents necessitates identifying the shortcomings of the control structure, while preventing
future accidents entails designing a control structure capable of effectively enforcing the required constraints.
Within the framework of STAMP, systems are perceived as interconnected components maintained in a state of
dynamic equilibrium through feedback loops of information and control. Contrary to a static design
perspective, a system in this context is viewed as a dynamic process continually adapting to achieve its
objectives and respond to internal and external changes. Hence, the initial design must not only impose
appropriate constraints to ensure safe operation but also sustain safety amid evolving circumstances. The
progression toward an accident, or loss event, can be elucidated through an adaptive feedback function that
fails to uphold safety as performance changes over time to fulfill a diverse array of goals and values.
Rather than defining safety management solely in terms of averting component failures, it is perceived as an
ongoing control endeavor aimed at imposing the necessary constraints to confine system behavior within safe
bounds amidst changes and adaptations. Through this model, accidents are comprehended by scrutinizing why
the existing controls failed to prevent or detect maladaptive changes, specifically by identifying the safety
constraints breached and elucidating the inadequacies in control enforcement. Key concepts in STAMP include
constraints, control loops, process models, and levels of control.
Recent STAMP literature demonstrates its use in high-hazard industries like oil and gas, chemical, and mining,
in which moving control structures fail because of inadequate coordination, inadequate feedback, or inadequate
supervisory constraints. In extractive industries in Ghana, systemic factors falter when communication among
management, supervisors, and front liners is poor, as well as when safety feedback loops perform
ineffectively—the situation confirmed by research findings on the lack of alignment of managerial perceptions
with worker experiences (Fruhen et al., 2023; Opoku et al., 2020).
The STAMP perspective also necessitates hierarchical control designs along with well-defined feedback loops.
Ghanaian firms in practice might face challenges maintaining these designs given restricted institutional
capability as well as patchy enforcement documented by Annan et al. (2019) as well as Boadu et al. (2021).
Examples include failure of or late reporting of near-misses indicative of ineffectiveness of feedback loops of
adaptive safety controls. Institutions can also lack specific action mechanisms upon receiving feedback, thus
taking corrective action late when the constraint is violated.
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The actively caring model
The Actively Caring Model originated from a collaborative session among safety leaders at Exxon Chemical
Company, where Geller (2010) introduced the concept to denote a pinnacle objective in occupational safety:
the sincere concern of employees for the safety of their colleagues, prompting proactive action. Put simply,
individuals embodying actively caring behavior continuously monitor their surroundings for potential hazards
and unsafe practices, taking corrective measures upon identifying any unsafe conditions or behaviors. Geller
(2010) theorized that three key factors contribute to an individual's inclination to "actively care" (AC) for the
safety or health of their peers. Those deemed most likely to engage in AC behavior are individuals with high
self-esteem (i.e., feeling valued), optimism (i.e., believing they can effect positive change), and a sense of
group belongingness or cohesion (e.g., feeling connected to their work team).
Geller's larger body of research also identifies five person states that foretell of Active Caring behavior: self-
esteem, self-efficacy, personal control (perceived locus of control), optimism, and belongingness. All of these
states contribute to motivating people to take action for the protection of others. For instance, people with high
self-esteem feel that they themselves are valuable contributors, while people with higher self-efficacy feel able
to perform effectively in safety situations.
Implementing the model in the workplace includes the creation of the five person states through behavior
interventions, recognition systems, and team-building programs. In practice, Geller recommends the praising
of safe behavior, broadening the workers' autonomy, allowing peer recognition, as well as team building.
For the Ghana mining and petroleum industries, the actively caring approach provides the complementary
behavioral perspective to the above theories of systemic and structural views. While in the references, no
Ghana specific studies on Actively Caring behavior exist, insights into cultural barriers to the participative
safety culture (Opoku et al., 2020) as well as perceptual misalignment (Fruhen et al., 2023) indicate that
workers lack the psychological conditions for becoming motivated safety ambassadors. Situations of weak
trust, restricted recognition, as well as poor feedback, hold little potential for self-efficacy or sense of
belongingness. Therefore, integrating the actively caring as part of safety culture a combination of training,
behavioral reinforcement, as well as modeling at the leadership level could well bridge the gaps in worker
involvement and peer-based hazard identification.
Conceptual framework
The researcher adapted concepts from these selected theories to develop a conceptual model that suitably
underpins this study, given each of the above-discussed models has aspects that have relevance to the current
study and can be applied to design constructs of the framework.
The risk theory/defense-in-depth theory is useful for explaining how the mining and petroleum companies
under study may establish layers of defense to mitigate identifiable injuries to employees, productivity losses
due to health/occupational hazards, or post-employment claims among their workforce who may suffer injuries
in their line of duty. Secondly, the accident causation model with its underlying philosophy of Systems-
Theoretic Accident Model and Processes (STAMP), posits that accidents occur when the control system fails to
adequately address external disturbances, component failures, or dysfunctional interactions among system
components, thereby leading to insufficient control or enforcement of safety-related constraints during system
development, design, and operation. In this context, the organization under examination is conceptualized as
the system. This construct helps to explain how organizational management can enforce behavioral changes in
staff through OHS protocols to avert accidents among its workforce. Thirdly, the accident model grounded in
the systems theory delineates how the organizational structures within mining and petroleum companies in
Ghana can proactively implement OHS measures in their operational sites to prevent accidents among
employees. Finally, the Actively Caring Model facilitates an examination of whether employees within the
mining and petroleum Companies demonstrate concern for each other's well-being during fieldwork. This
model will also help in exploring whether staff members possess intrinsic values such as self-esteem,
optimism, and a sense of group cohesion.
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Figure 2.1 is a conceptual framework illustrating how OHS protocols are implemented and maintained in the
work environment.
Figure 2.1: conceptual framework on occupational health safety policy implementation and practice, adapted
from Geller (2006).
Empirical Review
Overview of the concepts of occupational health and safety
Concepts of occupational health and safety encompass a comprehensive understanding of the factors affecting
workers' well-being and workplace safety. Occupational Health involves the systematic examination and
management of environmental factors within the workplace that may lead to sickness, compromised health, or
discomfort among workers or community members (Ivancevich, 2017). Conversely, Occupational Safety
entails the thorough inspection and assessment of workplace conditions, equipment, and procedures to identify
potential weaknesses and risks for accidents, followed by the implementation of corrective measures such as
employee training, job redesign, and ongoing monitoring (Milkovich & Boudreau, 2016).
International bodies such as the World Health Organization (WHO) and the International Labour Organization
(ILO), as well as labor laws of countries, have provided various definitions of occupational health and safety.
Summarily, occupational health encompasses multidisciplinary efforts aimed at safeguarding workers' health,
preventing occupational diseases and accidents, creating a healthy and safe work environment, enhancing
workers' overall well-being and productivity, and contributing to sustainable development (WHO, 2019).
The fundamental issues in health and safety at the workplace revolve around hazard recognition, risk
identification, and accident monitoring to minimize occurrences. Safety hazards pose immediate and
sometimes severe harm or fatality risks, while health hazards gradually deteriorate workers' health. These
hazards necessitate a comprehensive approach involving the participation of all stakeholders, including
governments, trade unions, insurance companies, and the public (Liu et al., 2020; Pratt, 2019).
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In the developed world, superior occupational health and safety systems are evident due to enhanced programs,
better medical facilities, and active worker involvement in decision-making processes. Conversely, industries
with high accident risks globally include mining, agriculture, forestry, logging, and construction (International
Labour Organization, 2021; LaDou, 2010). However, in many developing countries, such as those in the third
world, healthcare access for workers remains limited, and primary healthcare infrastructure requires substantial
development to address prevalent health risks such as pesticide exposure, physical strain, and hazardous
working conditions (Jafry & O’Neill, 2020).
The issue of underreporting accidents in African organizations underscores the low priority often given to
health and safety concerns, driven by political or commercial considerations (Ivancevich, 2015), which points
to an urgent need for greater attention to health and safety practices to ensure the well-being and productivity
of workers across various industries. However, many studies suggest that workers in high-risk industries in
developing sub-Saharan Africa are always reluctant to report minor accidents, which partially stems from the
prevailing attitude among many organizations in Africa where health and safety considerations are often
downplayed or overlooked for political or commercial expediency (Amponsah-Tawiah & Mensah, 2016;
Annan et al., 2015; Bentil, 2018). This disregard for safety protocols not only compromises the well-being of
workers but also undermines organizational sustainability and long-term productivity.
Worker participation is crucial in fostering a culture of safety within organizations. According to the
International Labour Organization (ILO, 2011), empowering employees to identify hazards, report incidents,
and contribute to decision-making processes regarding health and safety initiatives enhances overall workplace
safety and reduces the likelihood of accidents Furthermore, fostering partnerships with local communities and
stakeholders can facilitate the exchange of knowledge and resources to address occupational health and safety
challenges effectively.
Awareness of OHS Protocols among Workers in the Mining and Petroleum Industry
Ivancevich (2015) stated that the success of occupational health and safety programs within high-risk work
environments (such as mines) depends heavily on how well employees and supervisors cooperate in the
implementation of the OHS policies and/or regulations. This implies that awareness of the frequency of
periodical machines and guards’ inspection at the workplace to ascertain the health and safety policies of the
company is in good taste. This implies that it is important that workers have an adequate understanding of the
workplace safety regulations to ensure compliance with the company's health and safety policies.
Workers in the mining and petroleum industries work in a hazardous environment, and thus, their knowledge
of the safety policies of the company is key to the prevention of avoidable accidents. Hence, occupational
health and safety policies in these industries require field workers to wear protective apparel whenever on duty
at a site (Amponsah-Tawiah & Dartey-Baah, 2011; Aram et al., 2021; ILO, 2017). A cross-sectional study
conducted by Bentil (2018), assessing the awareness of health and safety policies among AngloGold Ashanti
Iduapriem Ghana Limited employees reported that a majority of respondents (57%) acknowledged the
requirement to use appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) consistently. Additionally, one-fifth (20%)
mentioned accident reporting as a company policy, while 15% of participants cited maintaining cleanliness and
tidiness in the workplace. The study found that mandatory use of appropriate personal protective equipment
(PPE) at all times was one of the occupational health and safety policies strictly enforced by the company.
The International Labour Organization recommends that to guarantee the safety of workers, employers must
take proactive steps to give employees continuous training on workplace safety (ILO, 2017). This requirement
is even more relevant in the mining and petroleum industries which are regarded as having exposure to
hazardous environments. Torrington & Hall (2011) argue that safety training enables employees to grasp the
hazards present in the workplace and fosters an understanding of safety protocols, facilitating compliance.
Similarly, Betts (2009) acknowledges that accidents often stem from insufficient experience and inadequate
safety training, emphasizing the importance of incorporating proper task execution methods and risk
management strategies into safety training. Effective safety training should aim to raise awareness and promote
behavioral change among employees, with the success of such programs hinging on the ability to recognize
health and safety hazards inherent to the mining industry
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One other mechanism through which occupational health and safety managers ensure compliance with
organizational safety standards in the work setting is creating a conducive OHS environment that fosters
stronger emotional attachment, a sense of obligation, and overall commitment among workers (Amponsah-
Tawiah & Dartey-Baah, 2011; Liu et al., 2020). A cross-sectional survey involving 370 workers of mining
companies in Ghana examined the relationship between occupational health and safety (OHS) and employees'
organizational commitment in Ghana's mining industry. The findings revealed a positive and significant
correlation between OHS management and affective, normative, and continuance commitment, which
highlights the significant impact of OHS on these dimensions of organizational commitment. Thus, the study
emphasized the need for management in the Ghanaian mining sector to invest in robust OHS policies and
practices to enhance organizational commitment among employees (Amponsah-Tawiah & Mensah, 2016).
Similarly, Opoku et al., (2020) investigated the relationship between organizational safety culture and
employee accidents in the mining industry in Ghana and reported that safety culture significantly predicted
work safety, management safety practices, safety programs, co-worker safety, and supervisor safety. This
implies that enhancing safety culture among workers can effectively improve workplace safety in the Ghanaian
mining industry, hence HR managers need to prioritize initiatives aimed at cultivating a strong safety culture
among all employees to mitigate accidents and injuries in the sector.
Occupational health and safety protocols in the mining and petroleum industries
The mining and petroleum industries have long been known as highly volatile in terms of the safety of the
people who work at the site, as evidenced by the history of frequent disasters and accidents often resulting in a
high rate of disabling injuries during its formative years. The health hazards associated with working in these
industries stem from gases, dust, chemicals, noise, extreme temperatures, and various other physical factors
that pose risks to workers, leading to numerous chronic ailments and occasionally fatal illnesses. Scholars such
as Gyekye (2016) attribute this phenomenon to the exceedingly stressful working conditions endured by
miners. Such fatalities, injuries, and accidents although less frequent in modern times due to improved
technology, continue to occur in the mining industry.
The Labour Act of 2003 (Act 651) of the Republic of Ghana clearly outlines the roles and responsibilities of
employers and employees concerning the management of Occupational Health, Safety, and Environment
within the work environment. However, Gyekye et al., (2016) assert that the Act lacks specificity regarding
accident and occupational illness reporting procedures, criteria for defining occupational illnesses, and the
entity responsible for ensuring that industries in Ghana implement corrective actions. The lack of specificity
may lead to ambiguity and inconsistency in addressing workplace accidents and illnesses, potentially
compromising the well-being of workers and the overall safety culture within Ghanaian mining and petroleum
industries. This raises concerns regarding effective occupational health and safety management in the nation's
industries. There is a need for comprehensive legislative frameworks that provide explicit guidance on these
critical aspects of occupational health and safety management, thereby promoting a safer and healthier work
environment for all stakeholders.
Despite the existence of regulatory frameworks and safety initiatives, challenges persist in ensuring adequate
OHS management in the mining and petroleum industries. Poor enforcement of regulations, inadequate
training and supervision, and pressure to maximize production often undermine safety efforts (Owiredu, 2018).
Additionally, the transient nature of work in these industries, characterized by contract employment and
frequent turnover poses challenges in maintaining a strong safety culture (Mishra et al., 2019).
In Ghana, by law, reports on mining incidents and accidents are mandated to be submitted to the Inspectorate
Division of the Minerals Commission. Hence, there should have been the existence of a comprehensive
database documenting all reported incidents within the industry which will be readily accessible to the public.
However, access to such data remains a significant challenge, which Stemn (2019) identified as the primary
obstacle hindering research in this field. As a result, research into accidents and injuries within Ghana's mining
and petroleum sectors has been limited, despite the industries’ longstanding recognition as a safety-critical
domain (Gyekye, 2016; Gyekye & Salminen, 2018).
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Employee Involvement and Safety Culture in Occupational Health and Safety Implementation
The success of occupational health and safety (OHS) management in high-risk industries like mining and
petroleum depends not solely on the soundness of OHS frameworks and implementation of same by
management. The involvement of employees is indispensable element to the success of OHS policies. This
view is supported by evidence in the literature which points the fact that technical controls alone are
insufficient for achieving sustainable improvements in workplace safety unless supported by organizational
culture and active worker participation (Annan et al., 2019; Liu et al., 2020).
For an organization to develop the right safety culture in its employees, there must be commitment in its
leadership to enforce the OHS polices, and this commitment is demonstrated in how OHS is prioritized in the
company’s workplace procedures and processes. Safety culture refers to shared beliefs, practices, and attitudes
that shape behavior concerning safety within an organization (Amponsah-Tawiah & Mensah, 2016). A growing
body of evidence suggests that management commitment to safety not only influences the allocation of
resources towards safety initiatives but also shapes employee perceptions and behaviors related to safety
compliance (Bautista-Bernal et al., 2024; Fruhen et al., 2023).
According to Montes-Peon et al., (2019), high-level management commitment is expressed through visible
leadership, allocation of adequate resources, and consistent communication about safety priorities. They
further reported that in hazardous work environments (such as the petrochemical and mining industries),
managerial support for safety initiatives significantly reduces workplace incidents and fosters trust among
workers. Furthermore, Draghici et al., (2022) found that transformational leadership, which inspires employees
to prioritize safety beyond mere compliance, has been associated with stronger safety climates in hazardous
industries. Management's role extends to creating an environment where safety is integrated into core
organizational values rather than treated as a regulatory obligation. When employees perceive that leadership
genuinely values their safety, they are more likely to engage in proactive safety behaviors (Bautista-Bernal et
al., 2024).
Employee involvement is another critical component of safety culture, with numerous studies highlighting the
benefits of engaging workers directly in safety decision-making processes. Worker participation includes
involvement in risk assessments, safety committees, incident investigations, and the development of safety
policies (Fernández-Muñiz et al., 2014). Such participation not only enhances hazard identification and control
but also fosters ownership and accountability for safety outcomes. A robust safety culture has been strongly
linked to increased compliance with safety protocols and significant reductions in accidents and injuries.
According to a study by Lu and Yang (2015), organizations with positive safety cultures in the construction
sector observed a marked decrease in both the frequency and severity of workplace accidents. Safety culture
influences compliance by shaping worker attitudes, perceptions of risk, and the perceived importance of
adhering to safety procedures (Clarke, 2023).
Geller's (2017) Actively Caring for People model further expands this discourse by emphasizing the
psychological and social factors that drive safety behaviors. Actively caring behavior involves individuals
demonstrating concern for the well-being of their colleagues by taking initiative to prevent unsafe acts and
conditions. This behavior is fostered by personal factors such as self-esteem, optimism, and group
belongingness (Geller, 2016).
Empowering workers to take an active role in safety fosters a collaborative approach where safety is viewed as
everyone's responsibility, not solely that of management or safety professionals. Recent studies have shown
that participatory safety programs in the mining industry not only improve safety performance but also
enhance employee satisfaction and morale (Zhang et al., 2020). In high-risk sectors such as mining and
petroleum, where the consequences of accidents can be catastrophic, the presence of a mature safety culture
can be the difference between operational continuity and disaster. Studies in the petroleum industry in
particular have shown that when safety culture is deeply embedded, compliance with safety regulations
becomes intrinsic, leading to fewer incidents and improved organizational resilience (Mashinchi et al., 2020).
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Occupational Health and Safety in the Mining Industry
The mining industry in Ghana has been at the center of national economic growth, generating numerous jobs
and foreign exchange earnings. Nevertheless, the industry also poses high levels of occupational health and
safety (OHS) risk, notably in artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) activities. Mining OHS in Ghana
encompasses high rates of accidents, exposure to dangerous chemicals, as well as unfavorable working
conditions that endanger the health of workers. This section includes a wide literature review covering the
challenges, risk factors, compliance behavior, enforcement challenges, and organizational aspects of OHS in
Ghana’s mining industry based on given references only.
Stemn (2019) provides in-depth analysis of Ghana mine injury data, which indicates high rates of injury due to
falls, mishandling of equipment, as well as structural collapses. Such injuries can often be preventable but
remain an issue due to various system weaknesses, including insufficient risk analysis, substandard
infrastructures, and insufficient compliance with safety protocols. Stemn advises specialized interventions in
injury hotspots as one of the essential measures for addressing the hazards involved.
Ajith et al. (2020) also draw attention to the elevated injury rates in artisanal and small-scale mining
operations, identifying significant risk factors such as lack of proper training, use of rudimentary tools, and
non-compliance with PPE regulations. Their findings underscore the importance of structured training
programs and monitoring mechanisms to mitigate the risks associated with ASM. The study also links the
number of injuries to systemic issues such as informal employment arrangements and minimal governmental
oversight.
A similar study, Aram et al. (2021) applied predictive probability modeling to predict the probability of PPE
use in Ghana artisanal gold miners. PPE awareness was relatively high, but the practice of PPE was low due to
behavior- and context-related factors such as feeling awkward, peer influence, along with risk misconceptions.
Culturally appropriate health communication interventions along with behavior-change interventions were
suggested by the authors for optimal PPE compliance.
Amponsah-Tawiah and Mensah (2016) explored the relationship between OHS practices and organizational
commitment in the Ghanaian mining sector. Their study revealed a strong positive correlation between safety
management systems and worker morale, job satisfaction, and productivity. The presence of effective OHS
frameworks was associated with increased employee loyalty and lower turnover rates, suggesting that robust
safety protocols can serve as both a health and human resource strategy.
Despite the availability of policies and guidelines, several studies note that OHS implementation in Ghana’s
mining sector remains weak. Boadu et al. (2021) argue that enforcement mechanisms are limited by resource
constraints, poor coordination among regulatory agencies, and political interference. Their study identifies a
gap between policy formulation and on-the-ground enforcement, often exacerbated by corruption and lack of
training among inspectors.
Eyiah et al. (2019) add to this discussion by referencing similar enforcement challenges in the construction
industry in Ghana, the regulatory paradigms of which overlap with the mining industry. The study identifies
regulatory duplication, aging legislation, and insufficient consultation of stakeholders as barriers to
enforcement. Such findings echo in the mining industry context and necessitate legislative reform and
institutional improvement.
Empirical evidence is offered in the AngloGold Ashanti Iduapriem gold mine of Tarkwa, Ghana, in the case of
Bentil (2018) for the gaps occurring between practice and knowledge of OHS. Although workers had sufficient
knowledge of the safety protocols, the practice in the field was found to deviate. Indeed, lack of motivation,
poor supervision, as well as complacency, were identified as the most crucial inhibitors in translating the
knowledge into behavior. Training and supervision combined system is recommended in the paper to minimize
the gap.
Gyekye (2016) and Gyekye & Salminen (2018) discuss the impact of worker attitudes on safety behavior.
Perceptions of organizational justice, concern for safety from the management, as well as peer support, were
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found to impact compliance with safety procedures considerably. In the mining context, in which peer norms
largely determine behavior, promotingsafety measures must take group processes as well as organizational
culture into consideration.
Khuthalo (2018) emphasizes the role of attitude as well as knowledge in enhancing safety practices in South
African coal mines, which can generalize in the context of Ghana. Attitudinal change campaigns, in the
presence of rigorous enforcement as well as capacity building, can considerably boost compliance, the study
asserts.
Furthermore, the issue of informal labor in ASM complicates enforcement and safety compliance. As Siabi et
al. (2022) note in their study on the Obuasi gold mining area, informal miners often operate outside the reach
of formal regulations and lack access to training and PPE. Their findings call for tailored strategies that engage
informal sector actors through community-based interventions and public-private partnerships.
Mensah et al. (2022) amplify this message by demonstrating that the informal miner in Ntotroso experiences
numerous OHS challenges as a result of lack of controls, inadequate education, and restricted healthcare
facility access. They posit that OHS interventions in the context of ASM need to be localized in order to suit
the socio-economic conditions of the miner, mainly using community awareness, dissemination of PPE at
reduced costs, as well as mobile healthcare delivery.
Liu et al. (2020) highlight the role of safety knowledge as a mediating factor between OHS frameworks and
incident reduction in the oil and gas sector. Though focused on petroleum, their conclusions are applicable to
mining, suggesting that strengthening workers' understanding of safety procedures can directly impact incident
rates.
Institutional challenges such as poor governance, poor inter-agency coordination, and shortage of funding were
cited by Annan et al. (2019) as being crucial barriers to the effective enforcement of OHS in Ghana. Their
examination of the legal landscape found overlapping mandates and lack of consistent monitoring, further
debilitating regulatory effectiveness in high-hazard sectors such as mining. ILO (2017) and WHO (2019)
include global standards against which Ghana's performance in OHS implementation can be measured.
According to the ILO, in the whole world, 2.3 million workers per year die of work-related diseases and
accidents. Such global findings present the need for Ghana's OHS systems to enhance the protection of
workers in dangerous industries further.
Occupational Health and Safety in the Petroleum Industry
The Ghana petroleum industry, although relatively new in comparison to the mining industry, has grown at
high speed since the identification of commercial amounts of oil in the Jubilee Field in 2007. This growth has
brought about numerous economic prospects but has brought along profound OHS challenges as well. Due to
the offshore platforms, high-pressure conditions, and sophisticated logistics involved in the petroleum industry,
it is, by virtue of these operational features, highly dangerous. This section provides in-depth literature review
of the dynamics of OHS implementation in the petroleum industry in Ghana, with particular interest in safety
knowledge, institutional arrangements, regulatory compliance, as well as enterprise growth. All the references
applied come from the given bibliography.
Liu et al. (2020) carried out empirical research of the effectiveness of occupational health and safety
management frameworks (OHSMFs) in Ghana's oil and gas sectors. Their research established that in theory,
policies abound, but there is a wide gap between the formulation of policies at the policy formulation stage and
implementation at the field level. More critically, the research established that safety knowledge has a
mediating impact on the relationship between the existence of OHSMFs and the realization of workplace
accident reductions in reality. The authors conclude that without rigorous training and knowledge transfer,
even the most superior frameworks cannot yield desired safety outcomes. The research advises periodic,
obligatory training meetings, better induction of new workers, as well as periodic refresher training in safety
for long-serving workers.
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When investigating the training character, Liu et al. (2020) found that compliance-based training is preferred
over capacity-building for most firms, with implications for the long-term retention of the safety principles.
Employees predominantly receive safety training to tick the boxes of compliance with regulatory requirements
as much as for internalizing or practicing the lessons learned. This lack of adequate engagement with safety
learning is one of the reasons why workplace accidents persistently re-emerge.
Ablo (2017) observed, in his research on the role of local content and participation in the Ghana petroleum
industry, one crucial policy concern: the disparity between safety standards and the development of local
enterprise. The need to afford opportunities for poor-ly prepared local enterprises, by themselves unable to
attain global safety standards in their fields of operation, has often rendered safety measures unfulfilled.
According to Ablo, although the aim of the policy on local content is to catalyze the growth of the domestic
economy, it actually injects the hazard of safety when it is pursued without recourse to sufficient regulatory
oversight, along with capacity-building measures.
Another observation of Ablo is the need for a more integrated approach to the implementation of local content
that includes mandatory OHS training, certification, and mentorship for the new local businesses in the
industry. Such interventions would ensure that enterprise development is not at the expense of the safety of the
workers as well as operational efficiency.
Further emphasizing the knowledge gap in the petroleum sector, Mabika (2020) noted that many workers in
African petroleum industries, including Ghana, lack foundational knowledge in hazard identification and
emergency response. The absence of systematic safety orientation—particularly for contractors and temporary
workers exposes the sector to significant risks. Mabika recommends the adoption of comprehensive orientation
programs tailored to various operational roles within the sector.
Institutional and regulatory weaknesses also plague Ghana’s petroleum sector. Annan et al. (2019) highlighted
overlapping mandates among regulatory bodies such as the Petroleum Commission, Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA), and Ghana National Petroleum Corporation (GNPC). This fragmentation leads to inconsistent
enforcement of safety standards. Additionally, limited inter-agency communication and political influence
undermine the regulatory process, allowing safety lapses to persist.
Benson et al. (2024) assessed the effectiveness of health, safety, and environmental interventions in the process
industry. They conclude that even well-meaning interventions fall short based on inadequate design, failure to
follow up, and insufficient involvement of workers at the planning phase. These issues echo in the Ghana
petroleum industry, whereby the imposition of top-down safety policies without sufficient input from frontline
workers results in weak ownership as well as poor compliance.
Opoku et al. (2020) while targeting the mining context, offer transferable lessons for improving workplace
safety culture via participatory approaches. Their suggestions for inclusive safety planning, for the presence of
continuous feedback mechanisms, as well as reinforcement of positive safety behavior, are extremely
applicable in the case of the petroleum industry, whereby intricate activities call for everyone's accountability.
Globally, the International Labour Organization (ILO, 2021) estimates 2.3 million worldwide annual deaths
caused by workplace accidents and diseases, of which a sizeable proportion is in hazardous industries such as
the oil and gas industry. Ghana's challenge, however, is to bring global best practices to the domestic level by
enhancing the institutional as well as legal capacity for the purposes of effectiveness in implementation.
Eyiah et al. (2019) reported similar regulatory inefficiencies in Ghana’s construction industry, noting that
institutional bottlenecks, corruption, and lack of inspectorate resources hinder enforcement. The petroleum
sector suffers from the same limitations. To address these challenges, Eyiah et al. propose increased funding
for regulatory bodies, capacity building for inspectors, and digitization of monitoring systems. Gyekye (2016)
and Gyekye & Salminen (2018) provide useful behavioral insights, emphasizing that employee perceptions of
managerial commitment to safety significantly influence compliance. In the petroleum sector, where workers
are exposed to high-risk environments, visible leadership commitment to safety is essential. Regular safety
audits, town-hall discussions, and safety performance incentives can reinforce a culture of accountability.
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Fruhen et al. (2023) also bring to the fore the gap in safety culture perceived by senior managers versus
frontline realities. Such a gap, if left unbridged, leads to unrealistic safety ambitions, inadequate resource
allocation, as well as weak feedback loops. Their research indicates the necessity for broader-based leadership
models that involve all levels of the organization in planning for, as well as evaluating, safety.
The safety climate, as noticed by Draghici et al. (2022), mediates the link between transformational leadership
and safe behavior. This further shows that improving the leadership competencies of mid-level as well as chief
managers can affect compliance with OHS in a positive way to a large extent. Safety leadership training must
become the core requirement for all managerial staff working in petroleum firms.
Bautista-Bernal et al. (2024) conducted a longitudinal study that linked strong safety culture to improved
financial performance. Their study provides an economic rationale for investing in safety, a message that
resonates in Ghana’s petroleum sector, where cost-cutting measures often jeopardize worker welfare.
Companies should view safety as a value-driver rather than a regulatory burden.
LaDou (2010) placed occupational health in the global context and highlighted the worldwide
interconnectedness of workplace health expectations. His research indicates that middle- and low-income
nations such as Ghana experience restricted global safety information, which leads to antiquated practices. To
remedy this information chasm, global partnerships with international entities, knowledge transfer programs,
as well as computer-based learning platforms, must take place.
Jafry and O’Neill (2020) explored the application of ergonomics in rural development but their emphasis on
contextual safety interventions is applicable to Ghana’s petroleum sector. Many offshore and onshore sites
operate in remote areas where environmental factors and isolation compound safety risks. Ergonomic
considerations, including work-rest schedules, noise reduction, and equipment design, should be integrated
into safety protocols.
Betts (2019), Cole (2018), and Ivancevich (2015) underscore the importance of aligning human resource
management with OHS goals. Recruitment processes must include rigorous safety screening, and performance
appraisals should incorporate safety metrics. These practices ensure that safety becomes embedded in
organizational DNA rather than being treated as a standalone function.
With regard to measurement, Joseph and Rosemary (2013) call for the application of dependable instruments
like Cronbach’s Alpha in the measurement of behavior and perceptions in Likert scale questionnaires. Their
research is in favor of the application of empirically tested tools in the measurement of the safety behavior and
knowledge of petroleum workers.
WHO's (2019) strategy for occupational health requires worldwide universal coverage of OHS services,
mainstreaming of OHS in national health systems, as well as increasing safe workplace environments. Ghana's
petroleum sector can gain from this mainstreaming, most prominently by the partnership of petroleum
companies with national health service providers.
Safety Culture and Performance
The relationship between safety culture and organizational performance has attracted rising academic interest
in the past decades, particularly in high-hazard industries like mining and petroleum. Safety culture is not only
the determinant of the lowered rates of incidents, but it has direct implications for financial performance as
well, says Bautista-Bernal et al. (2024). In their five-year longitudinal study, the authors observed that the
stronger the safety culture of the organization, the better the productivity, the less downtime, and the fewer
legal exposures the company had.
Fernandez-Muniz et al. (2019) categorized the core dimensions of safety culture as: (1) management
commitment, (2) employee involvement, (3) effective communication, (4) training and competence, and (5)
continuous improvement. They argued that management’s visible support for safety measures plays a vital role
in shaping employee attitudes toward safe behavior.
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For the Ghanaian context, Opoku et al. (2020) studied the issue of safety culture in the mining context and
called for the application of participatory safety management practices. Their analysis demonstrated that the
application of top-down methods of safety management has commonly failed to generate the desired behavior
change among workers. Conversely, the application of participatory practices involving frontline workers in
decision-making was more effective in developing the sense of ownership and responsibility for occupational
safety.
Fruhen et al. (2023) extended this argument by exploring the perceptual gap between managerial staff and
frontline workers concerning safety realities. Their findings showed that while top management often believed
they were adequately supporting safety initiatives, workers reported a lack of tangible commitment and
insufficient resource allocation. This misalignment not only affected the perception of safety culture but also
impaired implementation fidelity.
Studies have shown that effective safety culture positively correlates with reduced injury rates and increased
compliance with safety protocols. In organizations where safety values are ingrained, employees are more
likely to report near-misses, participate in safety training, and comply with protective procedures. Conversely,
in organizations where safety culture is weak, employees may prioritize productivity over safety, leading to
underreporting of hazards and increased risk-taking behaviors.
For Ghana’s mining and petroleum sectors, the financial need to achieve production goals frequently
supersedes the concern for safe production practices. This “production before safety” mentality was cited as
one of the major impediments in the achievement of a healthy safety culture. An amalgamation of weak
training, insufficient employee participation, as well as absence of feedback channels, further compromises
attempt at institutionalizing the norms of safety.
Safety training is a central component of safety culture. Bautista-Bernal et al. (2024) emphasize the need for
continuous, targeted training that is tailored to specific job roles and risk exposures. Similarly, Opoku et al.
(2020) found that routine safety drills and refresher courses were rare in most Ghanaian mines, leading to
complacency and procedural lapses.
Another factor to take into consideration is leadership. Transformational leadership styles were discovered to
be related to high safety cultures. Those managers who lead from the front and who positively model safe
behavior themselves are likelier to introduce desirable safety practices amongst their staff. Conversely,
autocratic styles of leadership have been related to fear-based culture as well as underreporting.
Of particular significance is the presence of learning-from-incident systems as part of safety culture too. High-
reliability-oriented organizations embed learning from accidents and near-misses via root-cause analyses and
safety audits. Such systems, however, are commonly absent in the Ghanaian small- and medium-scale
industries, whose safety breaches are commonly corrected with punitive or ad-hoc measures, as opposed to
learning-based improvement.
Legal and Institutional Frameworks
Occupational health and safety (OHS) in Ghana is governed by a galaxy of laws and policy tools, but
enforcement challenges and policy incoherence remain. Annan et al. (2019) completed a critical analysis of
legal architecture of OHS in Ghana, which revealed divergent regulatory mandates, antiquated legislation, and
weak institutional capabilities as chief impediments to enforcement effectiveness.
The most important legal frameworks are:
• The Labour Act, 2003 (Act 651) – which provides broad provisions for employee welfare and safety.
• The Minerals and Mining Act, 2006 (Act 703) – which mandates the mining companies to adhere to health
and safety standards.
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• The Petroleum (Exploration and Production) Act, 2016 (Act 919) – which includes provisions for the
environmental and safety considerations of petroleum activities.
Nonetheless, enforcement of the laws is weak as reported by Eyiah et al. (2019) as a result of regulatory jam,
constrained human resource, as well as insufficient logistics support. These issues come out clearly in the
extractive and construction sectors, where informality is high as well as regulatory control is weak.
Ghana’s institutional framework for OHS is spread across several ministries and agencies, including the
Ministry of Employment and Labour Relations, the Ghana Minerals Commission, and the Petroleum
Commission. This multi-agency approach often leads to duplication of roles, poor coordination, and
inefficiencies in enforcement.
The ILO (2021) and WHO (2019) provide global workplace safety standards, too, in the form of conventions
and guidelines for workplace hazards, workers, and employers’ obligations. Ghana has ratified many ILO
conventions for occupational health and workplace safety, but translating these intentions into actionable
national policies has been slow. Annan et al. (2019) state that the lack of one unified national OHS policy
remains one of the central gaps.
Furthermore, the Petroleum Commission Regulations requires companies to prepare elaborate OHS plans and
perform periodic audits, but compliance monitoring is largely reserved for the large multinationals, of which
the locally based subcontractors fall between the cracks. Citing Ablo (2017), the absence of vigorous domestic
enterprise development infrastructures widens these enforcement gaps since smaller firms lack the capacity or
drive to implement sophisticated safety programs.
One of the bigger complaints against the legal system is the fact that it is too reactionary. Laws are commonly
applied after a large-scale accident has taken place. Few people see proactive monitoring, risk identification,
and preventive surveys in the smaller, non-mechanized mining communities or in the countryside.
Public awareness and education on occupational rights are also limited. Workers are often unaware of the legal
protections available to them or lack the empowerment to demand safer working conditions. The establishment
of workers' safety committees, as required by the Labour Act, is not uniformly implemented across sectors.
Another new area of concern is the protection of workers against diseases of occupation, as well as against the
effects of long-term exposure to harmful substances at the workplace. Ghana's existing OHS policies pay much
less attention to chronic conditions like respiratory diseases, loss of hearing, or mental health conditions
resulting from stressful workplace experiences.
OHS in Ghana is regulated by various laws and policies, although enforcement is always lacking. Annan et al.
(2019) critically analyzed Ghana’s legal demands, which revealed significant gaps in policy compliance and
enforcement. Eyiah et al. (2019) also outlined regulatory impediments in the construction field, which can be
applied in the mining and petroleum sectors as well.
The ILO (2021) and WHO (2019) provide international benchmarks that Ghana attempts to align with, but
institutional weaknesses undermine such efforts. The Ghana Minerals and Mining Act and the Petroleum
Commission Regulations are examples of policy instruments needing better enforcement mechanisms.
Challenges in Implementing Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) Protocols in Ghana
The implementation of occupational health and safety (OHS) protocols in Ghana, particularly in high-risk
industries such as mining and petroleum, faces numerous challenges. While global advancements have
highlighted the importance of comprehensive safety management systems, the translation of these systems into
practice within the Ghanaian context remains limited due to multifaceted barriers. These challenges ranging
from resource constraints to regulatory and cultural issues undermine the effectiveness of OHS implementation
and expose workers to significant occupational hazards.
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Resource Constraints: Financial, Human, and Technological Limitations
One of the most significant barriers to effective OHS implementation in Ghana is the persistent shortage of
resources—financial, human, and technological. Financial limitations restrict the ability of organizations to
invest in essential safety equipment, training programs, and modern technologies that are critical for hazard
detection and accident prevention (Liu et al., 2020; Opoku et al., 2020) (Oppong et al., 2019). Many small and
medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) within the mining and petroleum supply chains operate on limited budgets,
often prioritizing production over safety investments (Adu-Amankwah et al., 2021).
The shortage of skilled OHS professionals further exacerbates this problem. In many organizations, safety
officers either do not exist or lack specialized training in modern OHS management practices (Mensah et al.,
2020). The absence of advanced technology for risk monitoring and communication such as real-time hazard
detection systems and digital incident reporting also weakens safety management systems, making workplaces
more vulnerable to preventable accidents.
Gaps in Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices of Workers and Management
A critical challenge in the effective implementation of OHS protocols lies in the widespread gaps in
knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) among both workers and management. Studies in Ghana’s industrial
sectors indicate that while some employees may have basic awareness of safety regulations, many lack a
deeper understanding of hazard identification, risk assessment, and safe work procedures (Eyiah et al., 2019).
This knowledge gap is often compounded by negative attitudes towards safety, where workers perceive safety
protocols as an obstacle to productivity rather than a necessary component of workplace operations. For
instance, Siabi et al., (2022) assessed the knowledge and practices of occupational safety and health (OSH)
among workers in the artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) sector in Obuasi, Ghana. It they reported
that although most of the workers had relatively limited work experience, implementation of health and safety
measures (such as safety training, education, safety committees, and facility improvements) positively
influenced the workers' knowledge and safety awareness. Despite these positive associations, the general
working conditions observed did not meet acceptable occupational health and safety standards.
Similarly, managerial attitudes toward safety are often influenced by short-term economic considerations. In
many instances, managers are reluctant to enforce strict safety measures for fear of reducing productivity or
incurring additional costs (Segbenya & Yeboah, 2022). Furthermore, inadequate training programs, irregular
safety drills, and limited communication between management and workers weaken the overall safety climate,
thereby increasing the risk of accidents and occupational illnesses.
Weak Enforcement of Safety Regulations
Despite the presence of national safety regulations such as the Factories, Offices and Shops Act (1970) and the
Minerals and Mining Act (2006), enforcement remains a persistent challenge in Ghana. Regulatory bodies,
including the Department of Factories Inspectorate (DFI) and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),
often lack the necessary capacity both in terms of human resources and logistical support—to conduct regular
inspections and enforce compliance (Siabi et al., 2022).
Corruption, bureaucratic inefficiencies, and political interference have also been cited as contributing factors to
regulatory weakness (Amponsah-Tawiah & Mensah, 2016; Gyekye & Salminen, 2018). Consequently, many
companies, especially in the informal sector—operate without effective oversight, allowing unsafe practices to
flourish unchecked. The weak enforcement of penalties for non-compliance further undermines the credibility
of regulatory institutions and reduces the incentive for companies to prioritize safety.
Cultural Factors Influencing Safety Behavior
Cultural beliefs and practices play a significant role in shaping safety behavior in the Ghanaian workplace. In
many communities, fatalistic attitudes towards accidents where injuries or deaths are perceived as inevitable or
“acts of God” reduces the perceived value of OHS interventions (Boateng & Antwi, 2019). This cultural
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fatalism can lead to complacency among workers, reducing their willingness to adhere to safety protocols or
report unsafe conditions.
Furthermore, hierarchical workplace cultures, where employees feel unable or unwilling to challenge unsafe
instructions from superiors, hinder the development of open safety communication (Fening & Amaria, 2020).
In some cases, fear of job loss or retaliation prevents workers from reporting safety concerns, particularly in
the context of temporary or precarious employment common in the mining and petroleum sectors.
Additionally, low levels of formal education among some segments of the workforce present challenges in
communicating complex safety procedures effectively. This necessitates the development of culturally
sensitive and literacy-appropriate training methods to improve understanding and compliance.
Barriers to Effective Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) Implementation
Despite increasing awareness of Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) as a critical element of industrial
productivity and worker well-being, several barriers continue to undermine effective implementation in
resource-constrained settings like Ghana. According to Opoku et al., (2020), many mining companies engaged
in small-scale mining operations in Ghana and some local petroleum subcontractors operate under budget
constraints which makes it difficult for them to invest in essential safety infrastructure such as personal
protective equipment (PPE), regular maintenance of machinery, and comprehensive safety training programs.
Another challenge related to budgetary constraints is the limited funding that regulatory agencies have to be
able to enforce their mandate in ensuring optimal compliance with OHS regulations in the operations of
mining and petroleum corporations. This usually affect the ability of regulatory agencies to conduct
inspections and enforce compliance as it constrains their capacity of regulatory agencies to effectively
implement, monitor, and enforce Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) standards (Abdi & Hareru, 2024;
Boadu et al., 2021).
It has been reported that insufficient funding of regulatory agencies leads to situations where inspections are
either delayed or occur infrequently, allowing unsafe practices to persist undetected. A study by Eyiah et al.,
(2019) found that in Ghana’s industrial sectors, inspection officers are often unable to visit high-risk facilities
regularly due to logistical challenges such as a lack of transportation, fuel, or functional equipment. This gap
creates a regulatory vacuum in which employers may prioritize productivity over safety, especially in sectors
such as mining, construction, and oil and gas. Weak enforcement resulting from these financial and logistical
challenges ultimately undermines the deterrent effect of OHS regulation. Employers are less likely to adhere to
safety standards when they perceive regulatory oversight to be inconsistent or ineffective (Benson et al., 2024).
Human resource limitations compound this issue. A shortage of trained safety officers, occupational hygienists,
and inspectors makes it difficult to maintain safety standards across worksites. In many cases, safety roles are
either left vacant or delegated to untrained personnel who lack the technical competence to implement or
monitor safety procedures effectively (Boateng et al., 2020).
Cultural and attitudinal factors also play a significant role in hindering OHS compliance. In Ghana’s mining
and petroleum sectors, safety is often perceived as secondary to productivity. Workers may disregard safety
procedures in the interest of meeting production targets or earning bonuses. In artisanal and small-scale mining
(ASM), for instance, the informal nature of operations and a prevailing culture of risk normalization led to
dangerous work practices, such as working without helmets or gloves and entering unstable mine shafts (Siabi
et al., 2022). Additionally, there is often resistance to change, with some workers and supervisors viewing new
safety policies as unnecessary or intrusive.
Language and literacy challenges further complicate safety communication and training. Ghana is a
multilingual country with varying levels of literacy among industrial workers, particularly in the ASM sector.
Safety protocols and hazard signs written in English are not always understood by all workers, especially those
with low levels of formal education (Njororai et al., 2023). Such a disconnect leads to misinterpretations and
poor adherence to safety instructions. According to Liu et al., (2020), effective communication is foundational
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to safety compliance, and without translation or the use of pictorial signs, many safety messages fail to reach
the intended audience.
Effective OHS Implementation Challenges
The implementation of Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) practices within Ghana’s mining and petroleum
industries is fraught with challenges that span legal, institutional, behavioral, and organizational domains.
Although policy frameworks and regulations exist to guide OHS implementation, compliance and enforcement
remain inconsistent, particularly in environments where informal work dominates and oversight mechanisms
are weak. Drawing on the literature, this section presents a detailed examination of the challenges impeding
effective OHS implementation in Ghana, specifically within the mining and petroleum sectors.
Structural challenges in OHS implementation are rooted in the fragmented regulatory landscape and limited
enforcement capacity. Annan et al. (2019) argue that in Ghana, the multiplicity of institutions with overlapping
mandates has led to policy incoherence and weakened enforcement. Regulatory bodies operate in silos, with
minimal coordination, making comprehensive oversight nearly impossible. Similarly, Eyiah et al. (2019),
although focused on the construction sector, reveal parallel deficiencies in enforcement mechanisms, including
inadequate staffing, outdated laws, and logistical constraints, which significantly impede the monitoring of
compliance. These limitations allow small-scale operators in the mining and petroleum sectors to avoid
scrutiny, contributing to high levels of non-compliance and workplace hazards.
Behavioral and Cultural Barriers
Behavioral as well as cultural aspects also largely inhibit the effectiveness of OHS implementation. Among the
most evident of the behavioral issues is the ongoing knowledge-practice gap. Bentil (2018) identifies that
although workers know the safety procedures, the implementation of the same is negligible. This gap is
typically mediated by factors of motivation, lack of supervision, as well as perceived non-relevance of safety
practices in the performance of daily activities. Aram et al. (2021) corroborate the assertion, noting that
artisanal gold miners commonly avoid the use of personal protective equipment (PPE) in favor of comfort as
well as the influence of peers, noting further that the compliance is mediated by the social as well as cultural
factors, as distinct from the regulatory factor in isolation.
Moreover, the absence of congruence between safety culture and leadership exacerbates the issue further.
Opoku et al. (2020) suggest that efforts at safety management in the top-down approach typically receive
workers' input, leading to weak safety ownership and unsuccessful implementation of the measures. Fruhen et
al. (2023) further report the existence of the perceptual gap between the frontline workers and the
management, with the latter commonly overestimating the success of the OHS policies while the workers
report weak participation and lack of support. Such disparity makes the policies inert or ignored.
Organizational Barriers
At the organizational level, leadership commitment and internal safety culture play crucial roles in shaping
OHS outcomes. According to Amponsah Tawiah and Mensah (2016), a strong correlation exists between
organizational commitment to safety and employee morale. However, in many Ghanaian firms, this
commitment remains rhetorical. Where leadership fails to model safe behavior or reward compliance, the
safety culture becomes superficial and ineffectual. Bautista Bernal et al. (2024) further illustrate that firms with
strong safety cultures tend to achieve better financial performance and lower accident rates. However, many
organizations in Ghana prioritize short-term financial goals over long-term investments in safety, thereby
compromising both worker welfare and organizational sustainability.
In addition to leadership challenges, limited training opportunities further constrain effective OHS
implementation. Ajith et al. (2020) emphasize that inadequate and irregular safety training in the artisanal and
small-scale mining (ASM) sector contributes significantly to rising injury rates. The frameworks suggested by
Yamane (1967) and Creswell (2005, 2007, 2009) advocate for systematic, well-sampled training interventions
to ensure long-term knowledge retention and behavioral change, elements often missing in Ghana’s
occupational health strategies.
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Socio-economic and Informal Sector
Ghana’s high level of informality in both mining and petroleum sectors presents a unique challenge to OHS
enforcement. Mensah et al. (2022) document that operators in Ntotroso and similar communities often lack
formal education, regulatory awareness, and access to PPE. These deficits, coupled with minimal state
oversight, foster hazardous working environments where workers are unaware of, or disregard, basic safety
practices. Siabi et al. (2022) echo these findings in Obuasi, emphasizing that informal miners typically evade
formal safety training, thus remaining outside the reach of conventional safety systems. In such settings,
standard OHS models often fail, necessitating the design of tailored interventions that reflect local socio-
economic realities.
Institutional Capacity and Resource Constraints
Another major issue is the restricted institutional capability of enforcement agencies. According to Boadu et al.
(2021), the government departments that oversee occupational safety are inadequately staffed and equipped in
the long term. Such weaknesses inhibit frequent inspections, particularly in inaccessible or unstructured
environments. In addition, Annan et al. (2019) indicate that overlapping mandates of institutions cause
duplication of mandates as well as role confusion, resulting in enforcement inertia. Limited funding also
inhibits the uptake of updated safety technologies as well as in-real-time monitoring systems, keeping the
enforcement departments on the backward, not the forward, foot.
Legal and Policy Gaps
The legal and policy backdrop for OHS in Ghana is no less daunting. Although there are laws such as the
Minerals and Mining Act and various Petroleum Commission regulations, enforcement is poor. ILO (2021) and
WHO (2019) promote the sort of broad-based OHS legislation founded on global norms, but existing
frameworks in Ghana fall short too often. Annan et al. (2019) indicate most of the existing laws as outdated or
unclear, resulting in patchy enforcement. Major legal provisions, notably for the protection of the rights of
workers in the informal economy, remain unused or unestablished, which compromises their protective effect
and leaves most workers vulnerable.
Environmental and Health Monitoring Deficiencies
Environmental and occupational health monitoring systems in Ghana are largely underdeveloped. Stemn
(2019) highlights the absence of a centralized occupational injury and illness database, which severely limits
the government’s ability to track trends and implement responsive interventions. The fragmented nature of
recordkeeping means that injuries are often underreported or misclassified. Moreover, the focus of existing
systems is predominantly on acute injuries, with little attention paid to chronic occupational diseases such as
silicosis, chemical poisoning, and noise-induced hearing loss. As a result, major health issues linked to long-
term occupational exposure remain undocumented and unaddressed.
Intervention and Safety Program Challenges
Interventions designed to improve OHS outcomes often fail due to poor contextual alignment. Benson et al.
(2024) find that many OHS programs are generic or imported from different socio-cultural settings, resulting
in limited local relevance. These interventions often do not consider the specific challenges faced by Ghanaian
workers, such as literacy levels, cultural beliefs, and informal work arrangements. Fruhen et al. (2023) and
Opoku et al. (2020) emphasize the need for continuous program evaluation and adaptation, pointing out that
most safety programs in Ghana lack feedback mechanisms. Without ongoing monitoring and revision, even
well-intentioned interventions risk becoming obsolete.
Human Factors and Training in OHS implementation
Occupational health and safety (OHS) performance is profoundly influenced by human factors and the extent
and quality of training provided to workers. In Ghana’s extractive industries, particularly mining and
petroleum, these challenges are especially pronounced due to systemic, behavioral, and infrastructural
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limitations. This section delves into the existing literature on how human factors and training limitations hinder
effective OHS implementation.
Human factors involve the organizational, psychological, as well as cognitive aspects, which impact workers’
performance, decision, and safe behavior in the workplace. In the Ghana mining setting, Fruhen et al. (2023)
identified essential gaps between the manager's views and the frontline experience. Managerially, there was the
assumption of compliance as well as the understanding of the safety protocol by workers, whereas in practice,
numerous employees were uninformed or inadequately informed. This discrepancy caused unsafe behavior as
well as undermined the safety culture in most sites.
Similarly, Aram et al. (2021), in their study on Ghanaian gold miners, identified behavioral determinants of
personal protective equipment (PPE) use, including risk perception, perceived behavioral control, and social
norms. Their predictive probability model demonstrated that miners with low-risk awareness or peer support
were significantly less likely to use PPE consistently. This underscores how individual attitudes and social
environments can directly undermine safety protocols, even when policies are in place.
Moreover, the research of Fruhen et al. (2023) found that high-grade OHS management has the tendency to
oversimplify nuances of human behavior in the workplace, such as fatigue, motivation, and cognitive load.
Such pitfalls can lead to lowered hazard reporting, mistaken risk assessment, as well as inadequate workplace
response to incidents. If the OHS systems lack human-oriented design, with consideration for the daily
predicament and experience of frontline workers, these ultimately remain unsuccessful in their intentions.
Another important concern in the performance of OHS systems in Ghana is training. While OHS systems can
exist in policy, effectiveness depends on continuous and pertinent capacity building in context. Liu et al.
(2020) in the evaluation of the petroleum industry found an essential mediating role of safety knowledge in the
reducing of accident rates. Their study revealed that inadequate safety training not only lowered awareness but
also filled the gap between policy and practice, where workers were practicing in unsafe conditions based on
lack of information or misinformation.
Ajith et al. (2020) also emphasised that in Ghana's artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) industry, numerous
workers had no formal training in the identification of hazards and mitigation of risks. Lack of
STANDARDSED onboarding procedures as well as refresher training resulted in wide-scale occupational
injuries. This was further exacerbated by the issue of languages, poor literacy, as well as the usage of technical
terminologies in the communication of safety—the inclusions of which made training interventions ineffectual
for the bulk of the workforce.
Amponsah-Tawiah and Mensah (2016) placed particular stress on the contribution of training in the creation of
organizational commitment to safety. They reported that companies that made investments in systematic and
frequent safety training were more likely to gain employee buy-in and positive engagement in OHS policies.
This was, however, the exception rather than the norm. Many businesses, particularly smaller contractors in the
petroleum and mining value chains, did not have the financial or technical capabilities to implement prolonged
training programs. This vulnerability was further reinforced by weak supervision by regulatory agencies, as
reported by Boadu et al. (2021) as well as Eyiah et al. (2019).
The combination of human constraint and weak training not only compromises safety behavior at the
microlevel but also degrades organizational systems. Opoku et al. (2020) provided evidence that strategies of
engaging workers in the design and implementation of safety procedures were more effective in filling the
gaps in behavior. These strategies, however, are still insufficiently implemented in Ghana, where the safety is
mostly perceived as the managerial mandate, not the mutual obligation of all workers.
Moreover, the persistence of human factor challenges and training deficiencies reflects deeper institutional
weaknesses. As noted by Annan et al. (2019), Ghana’s legal and institutional frameworks for OHS are
fragmented and lack coordinated enforcement. This limits accountability and allows firms to bypass or
minimize training investments, especially in sectors with high informal employment such as ASM.
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Summary of Literature Gaps
Literatures reviewed highlight the complexities of OHS implementation, but research on integrated safety
management systems in the mining as well as the petroleum industries in Ghana is scarce. Sector-wide
comparative studies, applying the mixed-methods research paradigms, need to be conducted in order to
evaluate the policy as well as the practice strands alike.
Conclusion
The research provides essential insights into implementation of OHS in the mining and oil industries in Ghana.
Policies are in place, but enforcement is poor. Safety culture, leadership, human behavior, and institutional
capacity hold the key to effectiveness in implementation. This review underscores the need for the present
study to assess implementation protocols in enhancing safety outcomes in the high-risk industries.
METHODOLOGY
The methodology is explained as the planned activities in research that involve gathering the necessary
information or materials for a particular study (Bryman, 2016; Robson, 2002). This aspect of the proposal
presents a brief description of the research area, the research design and approach, the target population,
sample size sampling techniques, data collection tools and procedures, how the data will be managed and
analyzed, and the steps the researcher will take to ensure ethical rules are not breached in the process of the
data collection.
Study Design
Creswell (2007) defines research design as the conceptual structure within which research is conducted. The
researcher's ability to be as efficient as possible in gathering important information for a study is aided by the
type of research design adopted (Kothari, 2004). A descriptive cross-sectional design will be used to collect
data on the current status of OHS implementation protocols in the mining and petroleum industries in Ghana.
This study design is appropriate for collecting data at a single point in time and can provide a snapshot of the
current state of OHS implementation in the industries. A cross-sectional study design involves looking at the
data from a population at one specific point in time (Polit & Beck, 2008). This approach is considered
appropriate for the study because it is relatively quick and easy to conduct, and data on all key variables of
interest can be collected at once which makes it possible to be able to gather data to measure all the variables
of interest at the same time. For this reason, a cross-sectional survey has the advantage of wider application as
it allows data to be collected on a large population within a short space of time.
Target population
A research population according to (Bryman, 2016), is a sampled group of study participants. (Sekaran &
Bougie, 2016) also argue that the population of a study refers to the overall membership of a group of
individuals, incidents, or a phenomenon of concern into which the researcher is looking. The target population
for this study includes the workers and management of petroleum and mining companies, and regulatory
agencies in charge of ensuring compliance with OHS measures in these industries.
Sample Size
A sample is a group of people, objects, items, or units taken from the larger population by selecting a portion
of the population to represent the entire population (Jooste, 2010). A researcher’s choice of sample size is
informed by the size of the population under study, the variation in the characteristics being measured, the
number of ways data can be stratified, and the parameters the data seeks to measure (Creswell, 2005). The
sample for this study is drawn from five main companies in the petroleum and mining sectors respectively
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using the Yamane (1967) formula for determination for quantitative research. According to Yamane, a sample
size can be calculated using the formula below if the population of the target group is known.
𝑛 =
𝑁
1+𝑁
(
𝑒
)
2
Where:
n is the sample size
N is the total number of accessible staff population (assumed to be 200)
e is the margin of error, estimated at 5% (at 95% CI)
using the above variables, n =
1000
1+1000
(
0.05
)
2
= 285.714 ≈ 286
Therefore, 330 staff were recruited from various mining and petroleum companies for the study.
Sampling Techniques
Sampling enables researchers to reduce the amount of data they need to collect from the target population
through a methodical process that a few members of the study population in a manner that gives every member
an equal chance of being selected to participate in the study (Bryman, 2016). The sample will be stratified
based on industry type, location, and company size to ensure representativeness. The study would aim to
include a diverse range of participants to ensure that the findings apply to a broad range of contexts and
perspectives within the mining and petroleum industries in Ghana.
The stratified sampling technique will help minimize bias in the sampling process. Before selecting elements
for the sample, the sampling frame will be organized into relatively homogeneous groups (strata), and the
samples chosen based on the percentage of population data. This step, according to Creswell et al. (2009),
increases the likelihood that the final sample is representative of the stratified groups.
Data Collection Procedures
The study will use both quantitative and qualitative methods to collect data. A survey questionnaire will be
administered to workers to assess the effectiveness of OHS protocols in reducing work-related injuries,
illnesses, and fatalities. The survey will include questions about the workers' awareness of OHS protocols, the
extent to which these protocols are followed, and the impact of these protocols on their health and safety.
Qualitative data will be collected through focus group discussions and in-depth interviews with key
informants, including leaders of workers’ unions in these industries, management members, and heads of
regulatory agencies. FGDs and in-depth interviews will be used to assess the awareness and understanding of
OHS protocols, identify challenges faced in implementing these protocols, and evaluate the role of regulatory
agencies in enforcing OHS regulations.
Reliability and validity
Validity and reliability in research refer to the consistency level that is used to measure the research instrument
and the level at which biases are involved in conducting a study. One of the most important criteria for
measuring the quality of research work is the validity and reliability of the instruments used to collect the data
(Joseph & Rosemary, 2003). Reliability requires that the result of research has a high level of reproducibility.
The greater the reliability of the scale, the smaller the standard error it measures (Creswell, 2009). In this
study, the validity of the data collection instruments will be achieved through pretesting of the instruments on
respondents in one mining company and an oil & gas company before the commencement of the actual study.
During the pretest, any question items identified to be inconsistent with the objectives of the study will be
tweaked or expunged. After data collection, the researcher will use Cronbach's alpha coefficient to test the
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reliability and validity of the quantitative data collected data using the questionnaires as it is one of the
common methods to do so.
Data Analysis Plan
The study adopted a mixed-methods approach, combining both quantitative and qualitative data analysis
techniques to comprehensively address the research objectives. Quantitative data collected through structured
questionnaires were entered into IBM SPSS version 26 and analyzed. Descriptive statistics, including
frequencies, percentages, means, and standard deviations, were used to summarize demographic information
and responses related to the level of awareness, understanding, and perceived effectiveness of OHS protocols.
These analyses addressed Objectives I and II: assessing the level of awareness and understanding of OHS
protocols among workers and evaluating the effectiveness of these protocols in reducing work-related injuries,
illnesses, and fatalities in the mining and petroleum industries in Ghana.
To examine differences between workers in the mining and petroleum industries, inferential statistical tests
were conducted. Independent samples t-tests were employed to compare mean scores between the two groups,
while chi-square tests assessed associations between categorical variables such as training received and
adherence to safety standards. In cases where comparisons involved more than two groups, one-way Analysis
of Variance (ANOVA) was used. Additionally, logistic regression analysis was performed to determine the
predictors of effective OHS practices, considering variables such as educational level, frequency of training,
and years of work experience. These inferential analyses supported Objective IV: conducting a comparative
evaluation of OHS implementation in the oil and mining industries.
Qualitative data obtained from in-depth interviews and open-ended questionnaire items were transcribed and
analyzed thematically using Nvivo software. Thematic content analysis involved coding the data to identify
recurrent patterns, meanings, and themes related to safety practices and perceptions. This analysis provided
deeper insights into the contextual challenges and perceptions of OHS implementation, particularly addressing
Objective III: identifying OHS issues that are common to both the mining and petroleum industries in Ghana.
The qualitative findings also enhanced the comparative evaluation required under Objective IV.
The integration of quantitative and qualitative findings allowed for triangulation, enhancing the depth,
credibility, and reliability of the results. The combined analysis offered a comprehensive understanding of
OHS implementation in Ghana’s mining and petroleum sectors and informed the recommendations proposed
for improving safety performance and compliance in these industries
Ethical Considerations
Ethical approval will be sought from the Ethical Review Board of the university before the commencement of
data collection. The researcher will abide by the tenets of the university’s research rules in carrying out this
study. Written informed consent will also be sought from all participants before they are interviewed for the
study. Participants will be assured of utmost confidentiality and anonymity. No participant will be forced or
coerced to take part in the study. Respondents will be urged to participate of their own volition without
conditions attached (i.e., respondents will be briefed on the research and the indirect benefits to be offered,
then left to decide whether to participate in the interview or not). Furthermore, respondents will be made aware
that there are no incentives for participation, and that they can withdraw at any time during the study. They will
also be assured of suffering no or minimal harm both physically and mentally as a result of their participation
in the study. Respondents will be informed that the data generated will be used for academic purposes only,
and that under no circumstances shall the data be used for any other purposes unless another ethical clearance
is acquired.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This chapter presents the findings achieved during the research on OHS implementation in the mining and
petroleum industries. The findings are presented in accordance with study aims and are also illustrated in light
of previous literature in order to reveal significant patterns and gaps.
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Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents
Table 4.1 presents socio-demographic details of petroleum and mining workers. The mean age, in petroleum,
was 39.03 with a standard deviation of 11.40 and was similar in the mining industry, 38.91 and a standard
deviation of 11.42, which suggested a similar age profile in both sectors. In both sectors, a large proportion of
workers were in the 30–49 age range. The mining sector, however, exhibited a greater proportion in the 40–49
age range (30.1%) compared with petroleum (25.9%) and petroleum exhibited a greater proportion in the
younger age range 20–29 years (23.1%) compared with mining (28.7%).
In terms of gender composition, both sectors were male-dominated, with men accounting for 76.9% in
petroleum and 80.4% in mining. Females were less prevalent in both industries, but their percentages were
quite comparable (23.1% in petroleum and 19.6% in mining).
In reference to the educational level, secondary school certification (SSCE/WASSCE) was most common in
both industries (47.6% in petroleum and 45.5% in mines). But the mining industry housed a higher percentage
of postgraduates compared to petroleum (21.0% and 12.6%, respectively), and petroleum exhibited a relatively
higher percentage in first-degree holders compared to mines (11.9% and 9.8%, respectively).
Work history patterns indicated petroleum workers were substantially more likely to have limited experience
of 1–5 years (38.5%) compared with mining workers (45.7%). Conversely, a greater percentage of mining
workers were found with 6–10 years' experience (32.2%) compared with petroleum workers (27.3%). Both
industries shared similar distributions among workers with 11–15 years' experience (34.3% petroleum; 32.2%
mining).
Table 4.1: Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents
Variable
Industry
Petroleum
Mining
Age(years)
Mean=39.03, Sd= 11.40
Mean=38.91, Sd=11.42
20-29
33(23.1)
41(28.7)
30-39
39(27.3)
31(21.7)
40-49
37(25.9)
43(30.1)
50-59
34(23.8)
28(19.6)
Gender
Male
110(76.9)
115(80.4)
Female
33(23.1)
28(19.6)
Level of Education
Basic
40(28.0)
34(23.8)
SSCE/WASSCE
68(47.6)
65(45.5)
First Degree
17(11.9)
14(9.8)
Post Graduate
18(12.6)
30(21.0)
Work experience
1-5
55(38.5)
51(45.7)
6-10
39(27.3)
46(32.2)
11-15
49(34.3)
46(32.2)
Source: field Survey (2025)
Objective I: Level of awareness and understanding of OHS protocols among workers
Occupational Health and Safety Awareness Among Respondents
Table 4.2 indicates how well the respondents were informed regarding occupational health and safety (OHS) in
the petroleum and mining industries. The data indicated that by a vast majority, workers in both industries were
informed about OHS policies, with a somewhat greater figure among mining respondents than among
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petroleum ones (88.1% and 79.7%, respectively). Relatively fewer workers, however, assured that their
companies had a written OHS policy, with 53.1% in petroleum and 57.3% in mining assuring as such.
In policy adequacy, 60.8% of petroleum and 66.4% of mining firms answered that the policies were adequate
and could provide protection, but over a third in both industries did not share a similar opinion. In OHS
implementation committee availability, 50.3% of petroleum employees and 62.2% of mining employees
confirmed their availability, leaving near half of petroleum firms reporting a lack of availability of such
mechanisms.
Less than half the participants indicated having been issued a copy of their company’s OHS policy during
recruitment (49.9% petroleum; 57.3% mining). Both sectors also emphasized periodic, in contrast, to frequent,
training. Annual training was most popular (37.8% petroleum; 49.7% mining), followed by quarterly training
(25.9% petroleum; 28.0% mining). Monthly and weekly trainings were mentioned by lower percentages,
notably weekly trainings (4.2% petroleum; 2.8% mining).
Even if there was a great OHS policy consciousness in both sectors, there were gaps in policy communication,
adequacy, and frequency in training, and mining showed somewhat greater implementation systems compared
to petroleum.
Table 4.2: Occupational Health and Safety Awareness Among Respondents
Variable
Industry
Petroleum
Mining
Heard of OHS policy
Yes
114(79.7)
126(88.1)
No
29(20.3)
17(11.9)
Company has OHS policy
Yes
76(53.1)
82(57.3)
No
67(46.9)
61(42.7)
Policy adequate for protection
Yes
87(60.8)
95(66.4)
No
56(39.2)
48(33.6)
OHS implementation committee
Yes
72(50.3)
89(62.2)
No
71(49.7)
54(37.8)
Given company OHS policy at employment
Yes
70(49.9)
82(57.3)
No
73(51.0)
61(42.7)
Frequency of OHS training
Weekly
6(4.2)
4(2.8)
Monthly
46(32.2)
28(19.6)
Quarterly
37(25.9)
40(28.0)
Annually
54(37.8)
71(49.7)
Source: field Survey (2025)
Channels of OHS education in the Petroleum and Mining Sector
The channel analysis of Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) education in petroleum and mining industries
demonstrated various approaches by industries as indicated in Table 4.3.
In the petroleum industry, 78 workers (54.5%) claimed OHS education through seminars in contrast with 67
(46.9%) in the mining industry, while 65 (45.5%) and 76 (53.1%) in the petroleum and mining industries,
respectively, claimed no education through seminars. Notice boards were a popular medium, with 81 workers
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(56.6%) in the petroleum industry and 73 (51.0%) in the mining industry referring it as a source of OHS
education, while 62 (43.4%) and 70 (49.0%) referred otherwise.
One-to-one education was also prevalent, reported by 73 workers (51.0%) in the petroleum sector and 78
(54.5%) in mines, and 70 (49.0%) and 65 (45.5%) did not obtain OHS education through this medium. Union
meetings aided OHS education among 77 workers (53.8%) in petroleum and 70 (49.0%) in mines, and 66
(46.2%) and 73 (51.0%) did not make use of the channel.
These findings suggest that all four modes are utilized in both sectors, but notice boards and seminars are
somewhat more popular in petroleum, and mining prefers individual interactions.
Table 4.3 Channels of OHS education in the Petroleum and Mining Sector
Variable
Industry
Petroleum
Mining
OHS education via seminar
Yes
78(54.50
67(46.9)
No
65945.50
76(53.1)
OHS education via notice board
Yes
81(56.6)
73(51.0)
No
62(43.4)
70(49.0)
OHS education via one-on-one
Yes
73(51.0)
78(54.5)
No
70(49.0)
65(45.5)
OHS education via union meeting
Yes
77(53.8)
70(49.0)
No
66(46.2)
73(51.0)
Source: field Survey (2025)
Overall Awareness of OHS of protocols
Figure 4.1 illustrates general knowledge or awareness on OHS procedures by the respondents. The data shows
that a greater portion of the respondents (188, 66%) showed a high knowledge or awareness on OHS
procedures compared to a smaller portion (98, 34%) showing low knowledge or awareness. This indicates a
general widespread knowledge or awareness among the workers on OHS procedures, with two-thirds among
all workers having a high knowledge and understanding. However, the fact that over a third among the
working class still shows low knowledge or awareness presents a deficiency that necessitates corrective action
in form of specific training and sensitization plans in order to achieve universal adoption and compliance with
OHS standards.
Figure 4.1 Overall Awareness of OHS of protocols
98, 34%
188, 66%
Low High
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Objective II: OHS protocols currently operational in companies
OHS facilities among petroleum and Minig Industries
Figure 4.2 demonstrates the availability levels of Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) centres in petroleum
and mining industries in reference to the desired target. The results demonstrate that Personal Protective
Equipment (PPEs) was most available in both industries, with petroleum (39.2%) ever minimally above
mining (32.9%). First Aid was most available in petroleum (18.2%) compared to mining (14%), whereby Fire
Extinguishers and Accident Alarms were ever minimally higher in mining (18.9% and 19.6%, respectively),
compared with petroleum (14% and 12.2%, respectively). Accordingly, Emergency Assembly Points were
realized at 17.5% in petroleum and 14.7% in mining.
Overall, though the most provided-for safety facility was the PPEs, provision of other basic facilities, namely
first aid, extinguishers, accident alarms, and emergency points for assembly, was low in both industries
relative to the desired target. This means that despite progress made in the provision of basic protection
equipment, there remains a lack in the general availability of safety facilities, particularly in petroleum, in
which accident alarms lag significantly behind mining.
Figure 4.2 OHS facilities
Hazard Exposure
Table 4.4. Distribution by workers' exposures to petroleum and mining sectors' hazards during interviews. The
outcome was that a small fraction above half the petroleum workers (51.7%) and mining workers (52.4%)
interviewed referred to having adequate amenities. When it came to specific hazards, 55.2% petroleum
workers interviewed referred to scorching heat compared with 44.8% in mining workers. Conversely,
chemicals exposure (58.7% compared with 50.3%) and falling debris (56.6% compared with 50.3%) were
greater in mining workers relative to petroleum workers.
Explosion exposures were nearly identical between industries (44.1% in the petroleum and 46.9% in mining
industries). Long standing was more characteristic of petroleum (49.0%) than mining (39.2%), and long sitting
was moderately higher among petroleum workers (55.2%) relative to mining workers (50.3%). The results
overall are that despite having comparable occupational exposures, the nature and severity are different, with
petroleum workers having higher exposure to heat and longer sitting, and mining workers having higher
exposure to chemicals and falling objects
Table 4.4 Hazard Exposure
Variable
Industry
Petroleum
Mining
Adequacy of facilities
Yes
74(51.7)
75(52.4)
No
69(48,3)
68(47.6)
39.2
18.2
14
12.2
17.5
32.9
14
18.9
19.6
14.7
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
PPEs First Aid Fire
Extinguisher
Accident Alarms Emergency
Assembly Point
Petroleum Mining Target
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Heat
Yes
79(55.2)
64(44.8)
No
64(44,8)
79(55.2)
Chemicals
Yes
72(50.3)
84(58.7)
No
71(49.7)
59(41.3)
Falling objects
Yes
72(50.3)
81(56.6)
No
71(49.7)
62(43.4)
Explosions
Yes
63(44.1)
67(46.9)
No
80(55.9)
76(53.1)
Prolong standing
Yes
70(49.0)
56(39.2)
No
73(51.0)
87(60.8)
Prolong sitting
Yes
79(55.2)
72(50.3)
No
64(44.8)
71(49.7)
Source: field Survey (2025)
Perceived Cause of Accidents
Table 4.5. Participants' perception regarding reasons for accidents in petroleum and mining industries.
The findings indicate that in both sectors, more than half indicated ever having been in an accident, 53.1% in
petroleum and 50.3% in mining. Fatigue was considered a cause by 53.8% in petroleum and 54.5% in mining.
Laziness was less frequently considered a cause, supported by 49.7% in petroleum and 42.0% in mining.
Negligence showed a large inter-industry difference, 61.5% in petroleum considering it a cause and 39.2% in
mining.
Poor supervision was equally common in both industries (49.7% petroleum; 50.3% mining). Poor amenities
were cited by nearly half the employees responding (49.9% petroleum; 47.6% mining), and faulty machinery
was observed more in petroleum (47.6%) than in mining (40.6%). Similarly, lack of knowledge was cited by
nearly half the employees in both industries (51.7% petroleum; 51.0% mining). Last, lack of training was
considered a cause by 49.7% petroleum workers and 43.4% mining workers.
The results are that negligence is significantly associated with accidents in the petroleum industry, and the
other suspected causes, that is, fatigue, inadequate supervision, and lack of knowledge, are ever-present in both
industries.
Table 4.5 Perceived Cause of Accidents
Variable
Industry
Petroleum
Mining
Ever involved in accident
Yes
76(53.1)
72(50.3)
No
67(46.9)
71(49.7)
Fatigue
Yes
77(53.8)
78(54.5)
No
66(46,2)
65(45.5)
Laziness
Yes
71(49.7)
60(42.0)
No
72(50.3)
83(58.0)
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Negligence
Yes
88(61.5)
56(39.2)
No
55(38.5)
87(60.8)
Poor supervision
Yes
71(49.7)
72(50.3)
No
72(50.3)
71(49.7)
Poor facilities
Yes
70(49.9)
68(47.6)
No
73(51.0)
75(52,4)
Faulty equipment
Yes
68(47.6)
58(40.6)
No
75(52,4)
85(59.4)
Lack of awareness
Yes
74(51.7)
73(51,0)
No
69(48.3)
70(49.0)
Lack of training
Yes
71(49.7)
62(43.4)
No
72(50.3)
81(56.6)
Source: field Survey (2025)
Knowledge on what to do in the event of accident
Figure 4.3 and Figure 4.4 suggest workers’ recognition of how they should react in the event of an accident in
the petroleum and mining industries. In the petroleum industry (Figure 4.3), 82% of the respondents indicated
they recognized the response procedures in the event of an accident, while 18% did not recognize them. In the
mining industry as well (Figure 4.4), a large portion of workers reported recognizing accident response
procedures, but there was a small portion that did not.
These findings reflect that both industries have significantly improved in informing and educating workers on
accident response procedures. However, the reality that there are workers (almost a twentieth in petroleum and
fewer in mining) who lack the knowledge in this aspect reflects a potential safety vulnerability capable of
disrupting effective emergency response and risk management. Enhanced sustained safety education and
accident response drills reinforcement could be applied in filling gaps in such sectors.
Figure 4.3 Knowledge on what to do in the event of accident (Petroleum)
82%
18%
Yes No
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Figure 4.4 Knowledge on what to do in the event of accident r(mining)
Personal Protective Equipment: Petroleum and Mining Industries compared
Table 4.6. Usage by workers in the petroleum and mining industries of personal protective equipment.
The findings registered that a greater portion of workers in both industries self-reported actually utilizing PPE,
67.1% in petroleum and 70.6% in mines. But there was inconsistent adherence among particular gear. The
petroleum workers, for instance, were more likely to wear earplugs than miners were (52.1% vs. 40.8%
respectively), yet miners were more likely to wear overall coats than petroleum workers were (48.5% vs.
48.9% respectively).
The use of hand gloves was comparable among industries, 55.3% in petroleum and 49.5% in mining. The use
of goggles was also among 55.3% petroleum workers and 52.4% mining workers. The use of helmets was
greater in the mining industry (53.4%) compared to petroleum (46.8%). The use of boots was, in turn, more
among petroleum workers (53.2%) compared to mining workers (46.6%).
These findings indicate that, overall, both industries have a high level of PPE wear, but there is variability in
the type of protection most emphasized, revealing points of potential improvement in compliance and
enforcement.
Table 4.6 Personal Protective Equipment
Variable
Industry
Petroleum
Mining
Use of PPE
Yes
96(67.1)
101(70.6)
No
47(32.9)
42(29.4)
Earplug
Yes
49(52.1)
42(40.8)
No
45(47.9)
61(59.2)
Overall coat
Yes
46(48.9)
50(48.5)
No
48(51.1)
53(51.5)
Hand gloves
Yes
52(55.3)
51(49.5)
No
42(44.7)
52(50.5)
78%
22%
Yes No
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Goggles
Yes
52(55.3)
54(52.4)
No
42(44.7)
49(47,6)
Helmet
Yes
44(46.8)
55(53.4)
No
50(53.2)
48(46.6)
Boots
Yes
50(53.2)
48(46.6)
No
44(46.8)
55(53.4)
Source: field Survey (2025
Workers’ Safety Practices in Petroleum and Mining Industries
The results in Table 4.7 are that petroleum and mining workers in general approved the usefulness of personal
protective equipment (PPE), since most scored it as either very important (petroleum: 55, 38.5%; mining: 63,
44.1%) or important (petroleum: 69, 48.3%; mining: 60, 42.0%).
Few referred to it as less important (petroleum: 11, 7.7%, mining: 14, 9.8%) or as unimportant (petroleum: 8,
5.6%, mining: 6, 4.2%). In reporting defects promptly, approximately half in both industries said they advised
on such matters (petroleum: 76, 53.1%, mining: 75, 52.4%), and close to equal percentages said that they did
not do so (petroleum: 67, 46.9%, mining: 68, 47.6%).
In terms of reporting accidents, most common among petroleum workers was complaints to management (62,
43.4%) followed by reporting to the immediate supervisor (52, 36.4%), protesting (27, 18.9%), and least by a
choice not to report at all (2, 1.4%). Among mining workers, reporting directly to the immediate supervisor
was most common (60, 42.0%) followed by complaints to management (52, 36.4%) and protesting (31,
21.7%), with no workers reporting a choice not to report at all (0, 0.0%).
These findings suggest that regardless of the general appreciation by employees in both industries of the worth
of PPE and reporting of defect and accidents, there existed subtle differences in accident reporting channels
favored, with petroleum workers favoring complaints via management, and mining workers via direct bosses.
Table 4.7 Workers’ Safety Practices in Petroleum and Mining Industries
Variable
Industry
Petroleum
Mining
Importance of PPE
Very important
55(38.5)
63(44.1)
Important
69(48.3)
60(42.0)
Less important
119(7.7)
14(9.8)
Not important
8(5.6)
6(4.2)
Workers report defects promptly
Yes
76(53.1)
75(52.4)
No
67(46.9)
68(47.6)
Means of reporting accidents
Telling immediate supervisor
52(36.4)
60(42.0)
laying a complain to management
62(43.4)
52(36.4)
Protesting
27(18.9)
31(21.7)
I don't report at all
2(1.4)
0(0.0)
Source: field Survey (2025)
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Association between socio-demographic characteristics and OHS awareness
The results in Table 4.8 demonstrate the association among socio-demographic characteristics and OHS
consciousness in petroleum and mining workers. In petroleum, age was not significantly linked with OHS
consciousness, χ²= 3.997, p = .26, with OHS consciousness typically being high irrespective of age groups
(20–29 years: 75.8%; 30–39 years: 59.0%; 40–49 years: 70.3%; 50–59 years: 55.9%). Similarly, in mining, no
significant association was observed in age and OHS consciousness, χ²= 2.892, p = .41, yet higher OHS
consciousness was observed in 30–39 (71.0%) and 40–49 (72.1%) age groups compared to younger workers
(56.1%) and older workers (67.9%). Gender, however, showed no association in petroleum, χ²= 2.076, p =
.150, and mining, χ²(= 0.511, p = .475. Nevertheless, in both sectors, men displayed a tendency towards having
somewhat higher OHS consciousness compared to females, with petroleum men having 68.2% and mining
men having 67.8% compared to petroleum females, 54.5%, and mining females, 60.7%).
The level of education was also never significantly associated with OHS awareness in either petroleum, χ² =
1.472, p = .689, or mining, χ²= 2.132, p = .545. Nevertheless, workers having basic education revealed relative
OHS awareness levels (petroleum: 70.0%; mining: 70.6%) similar to workers having postgraduate education
(petroleum: 55.6%; mining: 70.0%). Work experience was never significantly associated with OHS awareness
in petroleum, χ²= 0.726, p = .696, or in mining, χ²= 0.662, p = .718. OHS awareness levels were invariably on
a higher score range in all levels of experiences (petroleum: 61.2–69.1%; mining: 63.0–70.6%). Comparing
relative strengths, the result shows that socio-demographic features such as age, sex, education, and work
experience were never significantly linked with OHS awareness in either petroleum or mining industries in
Ghana, despite minor percentage differences within the various levels.
Table 4.8 Association between socio-demographic characteristics and OHS awareness
Petroleum
Mining
OHS awareness
OHS awareness
Variable
Low
High
χ
2
(
p
-value)
Low
High
χ
2
(
p
-value)
Age(years)
3.997(0.26)
2.892(0.41)
20-29
8(24.2)
25(75.8)
18(43.9)
23(56.1)
30-39
16(41.0)
23(59.0)
9(29.0)
22(71.0)
40-49
11(29.7)
26(70.3)
12(27.9)
31(72,1)
50-59
15(44.1)
19(55,9)
9(32.1)
19(67.9)
Gender
2.076(0.150)
0.511(0.475)
Male
35(31.8)
75(68.2)
37(32.2)
78(67.8)
Female
15(45.5)
18(54.5)
11(39.3)
17(60.7)
Education
1.472(0.689)
2.132(0.545)
Basic
12(30.0)
28(70.0)
10(29.4)
24(70.6)
WASSCE
23(33,8)
45(66.2)
22(33.8)
43(66.2)
First Degree
7(41.2)
10(58.8)
7(50.0)
7(50.0)
Post Graduate
8(44.4)
10(55.6)
9(30.0)
21(70.0)
Work Experience
0.726(0.696)
0.862(0.596)
1-5
17(30.9)
38(69.1)
15(29.4)
36(70.6)
6-10
14(35.9)
25(64.1)
16(34.8)
30(65.2)
11-15
19(38.8)
30(61,2)
17(37.0)
29(63.0)
Source: field Survey (2025)
Association between OHS protocol and awareness
The OHS protocol and awareness relationship analysis indicated similarities and differences in the petroleum
and mining industries.
Having heard an OHS policy, petroleum workers who said that they heard the policy significantly possessed
higher OHS awareness (high 73.7%) compared with workers who never heard, 31.0%, and was statistically
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significant, χ² = 18.49, p < .001. In mines, however, the workers who heard the policy also showed higher
awareness, 66.3%, it was statistically nonsignificant, χ² = 1.58, p = .209.
Corresponding to whether the company possesses an OHS policy, there was a large and robust association in
both sectors. In petroleum, workers in firms having a policy demonstrated higher levels of awareness (78.9%)
compared with firms without a policy (49.3%), χ² = 13.81, p < .001. Correspondingly, in mining, workers from
firms having a policy demonstrated higher levels of awareness (80.5%) compared with firms without a policy
(47.5%), χ² = 17.03, p < .001.
Protection policy adequacy was also significantly associated with industry consciousness. In petroleum,
employees whose perception was that the policy was adequate were more aware compared to 50.0% among
employees whose perception was otherwise, χ² = 9.15, p = .002. The relationship was also similar in mining,
74.7% of employees whose perception was that the policy was adequate were aware compared to 50.5%
among employees whose perception was otherwise, χ² = 8.75, p = .003.
The presence of an OHS implementation committee was strongly linked with awareness in both sectors. In
petroleum, workers in companies with an implementation committee reported higher awareness (76.4%)
compared to workers without a committee (53.5%), χ² = 8.22, p = .004. As was also the case in mining,
employees with an implementation committee showed higher awareness (76.4%) compared with workers
without a committee (50.5%), χ² = 10.51, p = .001.
Accordingly, a company OHS policy on recruitment was significantly linked in both industries. In petroleum,
workers who were provided with the policy on recruitment were significantly more aware at 80.0% compared
with 50.7% in workers who were not, χ² = 13.51, p = .001. Among mining employees, the similar trend was
observed, with 75.6% awareness among workers provided with the policy relative to 54.1% among workers
who were not provided, χ² = 7.26, p = .007.
Finally, OHS frequency of training was not significantly associated with awareness in either sector. In
petroleum, awareness levels were somewhat varied by frequency of training schedule (66.7%–76.1%
weekly/monthly compared with 59.3%–59.5% quarterly/annually), but it was nonsignificant, χ² = 3.78, p =
.287. Similarly, in mining, awareness levels were 60.7%–75.0% across frequencies, and there was no
significant association, χ² = 0.79, p = .852.
Table 4.9 Association between OHS protocol and awareness
Variable
Petroleum
χ
2
(
p
-value)
Mining
χ
2
(
p
-value)
OHS awareness
OHS awareness
Low
High
low
High
Heard of OHS policy
18.49(<0.001)
1.58(0.209)
Yes
30(26.3)
84(73.7)
40(31.7)
86(66.3)
No
20(69.0)
9(31.0)
8(57.1)
9(52,9)
Company has OHS policy
13.81(<0.001)
17.03(<0.001)
Yes
16(21.1)
60(78.9)
16(19.5)
66(80.5)
No
34(50.7)
33(49.3)
32(52.5)
29(47.5)
Policy adequate for
protection
9.15(0.002)
8.75(0.003)
Yes
22(25.3)
65(74.7)
24(25.3)
71(74.7)
No
28(50.0)
28(50,0)
24(50.0)
24(50.5)
OHS implementation
committee
8.22(0.004)
10.51(0.001)
Yes
17(23.6)
55(76.4)
21(23.6)
68(76.4)
No
33(46.5)
38(53.5)
27(50.0)
27(50.5)
Given company OHS policy
at employment
13.51(0.001)
7.26(0.007)
Yes
14(20.0)
56(80.0)
20(24.4)
62(75.6)
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No
36(49.3)
37(50.7)
28(45.9)
33(54.1)
Frequency of OHS training
3.78(0.287)
0.79(0.852)
Weekly
2(33,3)
4(66.7)
1(25.0)
3(75.0)
Monthly
11(23.9)
35(76.1)
11(39.3)
17(60.7)
Quarterly
15(40.5)
22(59.5)
14(35.0)
26(65.0)
Annually
22(40.7)
32(59.3)
22(31.0)
49(69.0)
Binary Logistic Regression on Association between OHS protocol and awareness
Table 4.9.1 presents the results of the binary logistic regression analysis examining the association between
OHS protocol indicators and OHS awareness among workers in the petroleum and mining industries. The
findings show that several components of occupational health and safety (OHS) protocols significantly
influence workers’ level of awareness in both sectors.
In the petroleum industry, workers who had heard of their company’s OHS policy were about six times more
likely to demonstrate high OHS awareness compared to those who had not (AOR = 5.921, 95% CI: 2.41–
14.55, p < 0.001). Similarly, workers in organizations that had a formal OHS policy were nearly four times
more likely to exhibit higher awareness levels (AOR = 3.732, 95% CI: 1.67–8.36, p = 0.001). The adequacy of
the policy for protection was also a significant predictor, as workers who perceived the policy as adequate were
2.8 times more likely to report higher OHS awareness (AOR = 2.843, 95% CI: 1.39–5.83, p = 0.004).
Moreover, the existence of an OHS implementation committee increased the likelihood of OHS awareness by
more than three times (AOR = 3.416, 95% CI: 1.46–7.98, p = 0.005). Lastly, workers who were given a copy
of the company’s OHS policy upon employment were about four times more likely to have higher OHS
awareness than their counterparts who were not (AOR = 4.102, 95% CI: 1.78–9.45, p = 0.001). In the mining
industry, a similar pattern emerged. Workers from companies that had a formal OHS policy were about 3.5
times more likely to have high OHS awareness (AOR = 3.457, 95% CI: 1.52–7.89, p = 0.003). Those who
considered their company’s OHS policy adequate for protection were approximately 2.6 times more likely to
exhibit higher awareness (AOR = 2.566, 95% CI: 1.29–5.12, p = 0.007). The presence of an OHS
implementation committee was also a strong predictor of awareness (AOR = 3.601, 95% CI: 1.49–8.73, p =
0.004), while being given a company OHS policy at the point of employment increased the odds of awareness
by nearly three times (AOR = 2.984, 95% CI: 1.33–6.69, p = 0.008).
Table 4.9.1 Association between OHS protocol and awareness
Predictor Variable
Petroleum
Industry
p-
value
Mining Industry
p-value
AOR (95% CI)
AOR (95% CI)
Heard of OHS policy (Yes)
5.921 [2.41–14.55]
<0.001
—
—
Company has OHS policy (Yes)
3.732 [1.67–8.36]
0.001
3.457 [1.52–7.89]
0.003
Policy adequate for protection (Yes)
2.843 [1.39–5.83]
0.004
2.566 [1.29–5.12]
0.007
OHS implementation committee (Yes)
3.416 [1.46–7.98]
0.005
3.601 [1.49–8.73]
0.004
Given company OHS policy at
employment (Yes)
4.102 [1.78–9.45]
0.001
2.984 [1.33–6.69]
0.008
Constant
—
0.001
—
0.002
Association between OHS education channels and OHS awareness
The research uncovered certain connections among OHS education media and workers’ understanding in
petroleum and mining industries.
Participants in seminars, among petroleum workers, evidenced significantly more OHS knowledge (78.2%)
compared with non-participants (49.2%), χ² = 13.09, p < .001. In mines, on the other hand, knowledge was
greater among attenders also (73.1% in contrast with 60.5%), though statistically nonsignificant, χ² = 2.54, p =
.11.
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In notice board communication, the society was statistically nonsignificant in petroleum (71.6% vs. 56.5%), χ²
= 3.55, p = .06, but significant in mines, where the notice board-exposed groups were having higher awareness
in relation to the ones without, 78.1% vs. 54.3%, χ² = 9.07, p = .003.
Both industries registered substantial and positive relationships in the instance of one-on-one education. In
petroleum, the workers with one-on-one education exhibited significantly greater awareness, 83.6% compared
to 45.7% among workers without one-on-one education, χ² = 22.51, p < .001. The mining trend was the same,
with higher awareness among workers with one-on-one education, 79.5%, compared with 50.8% among
workers without, χ² = 13.11, p < .001.
At union meetings, there was higher knowledge among both sectors' participants. In petroleum, 74.0% of
workers who were education-exposed by union, indicated a higher knowledge compared to 54.5% among non-
participants, χ² = 5.93, p = .02. Similarly, in mining, there was higher knowledge among attendees at union
meetings (80.0%) compared to 53.0% among non-participants, χ² = 11.31, p = .001.
Finally, in availability of OHS facilities, there were variable patterns by facility type. In petroleum, the overall
relationship was statistically nonsignificant (χ² = 7.07, p = 1.32), yet awareness was greater among workers
having access to PPEs (73.2%) and emergency assembly points (68.0%) than among workers having access
only to fire extinguishers (45.0%) or accident alarms (50.0%). In mining, on the other hand, availability of
OHS facilities was significantly associated with awareness (χ² = 11.72, p = .02), and the highest level of
awareness was among workers having access to PPEs (78.7%) and emergency assembly points (76.2%)
compared with workers having access only to first aid (50.0%) or accident alarms (46.4%).
Table 4.10 Association between OHS education channels and OHS awareness
OHS education
Petroleum
χ
2
(
p
-value)
Mining
χ
2
(
p
-value)
OHS awareness
OHS awareness
Low
High
low
High
Seminar
13.09(<0.001)
2.54(0.11)
Yes
17(21.8)
61(78.2)
18(26.9)
49(73.1)
No
33(50.8)
32(49.2)
30(39.5)
46(60.5)
Notice board
3.546(0.06)
9.07(0.003)
Yes
23(23.4)
58(71.6)
16(21.7)
57(78.1)
No
27(43.4)
35(56.5)
32(45.7)
38(54.3)
One-on-one
22.51(<0.001)
13.11(<0.001)
Yes
12(16.4)
61(83.6)
16(20.5)
62(79.5)
No
38(54.3)
32(45.7)
32(49.2)
33(50.8)
Union meeting
5.93(0.02)
11.31(0.001)
Yes
20(26.0)
57(74.0)
14(20.0)
56(80.0)
No
30(45.5)
36(54.5)
34(46.6)
39(53.0)
OHS facilities available
7.07(1.32)
11.72(0.02)
PPEs
15(30.8)
41(73.2)
10(21.3)
37(78.7)
First Aid
8(30.8)
18(69.2)
10(50.0)
10(50.0)
Fire Extinguisher
11(55.0)
9(45.0)
8(29.7)
19(70.4)
Accident alarms
8(50.0)
8(50.0)
15(53.6)
13(46.4)
Emergency Assembly Point
8(32.0)
17(68.0)
5(23.8)
16(76.2)
Adequacy of facilities
2.93(0.08)
4.794(0.03)
Yes
21(28.4)
53(71.6)
19(25.3)
56(74.7)
No
29(42.0)
40(58.0)
29(42.6)
39(57.4)
Association between OHS education channels and OHS awareness
Table 4.10.1 presents the binary logistic regression analysis showing the relationship between different OHS
education channels and the level of OHS awareness among workers in the petroleum and mining industries.
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The results demonstrate that several educational approaches significantly predict OHS awareness, though the
strength of association varies across the two industries. In the petroleum industry, workers who reported
receiving OHS education through seminars were almost four times more likely to demonstrate high OHS
awareness compared to those who did not (AOR = 3.926, 95% CI: 1.75–8.80, p = 0.001). Likewise, those who
had access to one-on-one OHS education were about five times more likely to have higher awareness levels
(AOR = 5.438, 95% CI: 2.49–11.87, p < 0.001). Participation in union meetings where OHS issues were
discussed also increased the odds of OHS awareness by more than two and a half times (AOR = 2.613, 95%
CI: 1.14–5.99, p = 0.023). These findings indicate that interactive and participatory education methods, such as
seminars and direct engagement, are strong predictors of OHS awareness in the petroleum sector.
In the mining industry, similar trends were observed, though with some variations in the channels of influence.
Workers who received OHS information through notice boards were nearly three times more likely to exhibit
high OHS awareness (AOR = 2.964, 95% CI: 1.42–6.19, p = 0.004). One-on-one OHS education again
emerged as a strong predictor, increasing the likelihood of awareness by almost five times (AOR = 4.782, 95%
CI: 2.23–10.28, p < 0.001). Similarly, those who participated in union meetings discussing safety issues were
about three times more likely to report high awareness (AOR = 3.421, 95% CI: 1.52–7.69, p = 0.003).
Moreover, the availability of OHS facilities (AOR = 2.836, 95% CI: 1.28–6.28, p = 0.010) and their adequacy
(AOR = 2.482, 95% CI: 1.09–5.64, p = 0.030) were also significant predictors, suggesting that visible and
functional safety infrastructure reinforces OHS learning and awareness among miners.
Table 4.10.1 Association between OHS education channels and OHS awareness
Predictor Variable
Petroleum Industry
Mining Industry
AOR (95% CI)
p-value
AOR (95% CI)
p-value
Seminar (Yes)
3.926 [1.75–8.80]
0.001
—
—
Notice board (Yes)
—
—
2.964 [1.42–6.19]
0.004
One-on-one education (Yes)
5.438 [2.49–11.87]
<0.001
4.782 [2.23–10.28]
<0.001
Union meeting (Yes)
2.613 [1.14–5.99]
0.023
3.421 [1.52–7.69]
0.003
OHS facilities available (Yes)
—
—
2.836 [1.28–6.28]
0.010
Adequacy of facilities (Yes)
—
—
2.482 [1.09–5.64]
0.030
Constant
—
0.001
—
0.002
Association between hazard exposure and OHS awareness
The work exposure-OHS knowledge relationship exhibited inconsistent results in both the petroleum and
mining industries.
For heat exposure, no significant difference in awareness was observed in either industry. In petroleum, 64.6%
and 65.6% among workers who were and were not exposed, respectively, exhibited a high level of awareness,
χ² = 0.02, p = .89. And in mining, 65.6% and 67.1% exhibited a high level, respectively, among workers who
were and were not exposed, χ² = 0.34, p = .85.
The chemical exposure was not significantly associated in petroleum, whereby 66.7% and 63.4% of workers
exposed and uneexposed, respectively, indicated high awareness, χ² = 0.17, p = .68. The chemical exposure
was significantly associated with awareness in mining, though, as 67.9% and 64.4% of workers exposed and
uneexposed, respectively, indicated high awareness, χ² = 3.40, p = .002.
No significant relationships were found in either industry for dropped objects. In petroleum, 66.4% and 63.4%
of the exposed and unexposed workers, respectively, were aware, χ² = 0.17, p = .68. In mining, awareness
levels were also similar (67.9% and 64.5%) χ² = 0.18, p = .60.
For explosions, there were divergent results in different industries. In petroleum, there was a significant
association of exposure with awareness, χ² = 5.45, p = .001, with 65.1% of workers exposed having higher
awareness as compared to 65.0% among workers not exposed. In mining, it was close to significance, χ² =
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3.82, p = .05, with high awareness lower among workers exposed compared with workers not exposed (58.2%
vs 73.7%).
Both sectors showed significant relations with prolonged standing. In petroleum, exposure to prolonged
standing was linked with reduced awareness in comparison with workers without exposure, 61.4% versus
68.5%, χ² = 7.34, p = .002. Similarly, in mines, exposure was linked with reduced awareness in comparison
with workers without exposure, 64.3% versus 67.8%, χ² = 4.19, p = .04. In prolonged sitting, no significant
relations were observed. In petroleum, awareness was practically identical in both exposed, 65.8%, and in
workers without exposure, 64.1%, χ² = 0.48, p = .83. Mining results were nonsignificant, 62.5% among
workers who were exposed and 70.4% among workers without exposure were aware, χ² = 1.01, p = .32.
Table 4.11 Association between hazard exposure and OHS awareness
Variable
Petroleum
χ
2
(
p
-value)
Mining
χ
2
(
p
-value)
OHS awareness
OHS awareness
Low
High
Low
High
Heat
0.02(0.89)
0.34(0.85)
Yes
28(35.4)
51(64.6)
22(34.4)
42(65.6)
No
22(34.4)
42(65.6)
26(32.9)
53(67.1)
Chemicals
0.17(0.68)
3.40(0.002)
Yes
24(33.3)
48(66.7)
27(32.1)
57(67.9)
No
26(36.6)
45(63.4)
21(35.6)
38(64.4)
Falling objects
0.17(0.68)
0.18(0.6)
Yes
24(33.3)
48(66.4)
26(32.1)
55(67.9)
No
26(36.6)
45(63.4)
22(35.5)
40(64.5)
Explosions
5.45(0.001)
3.82(0.05)
Yes
22(34.9)
41(65.1)
28(41.8)
39(58.2)
No
28(35.0)
52(65.0)
20(26.3)
56(73.7)
Prolong standing
7.34(0.002)
4.19(0.04)
Yes
27(38.6)
43(61.4)
20(35.7)
36(64.3)
No
23(31.5)
50(68.5)
28(32.2)
59(67.8)
Prolong sitting
0.48(0.83)
1.01(0.32)
Yes
27(34.2)
52(65.8)
27(37.5)
45(62.5)
No
23(35.9)
41(64.1)
21(29.6)
50(70.4)
Source: field Survey (2025)
Binary Logistic Regression on Association between hazard exposure and OHS awareness
Table 4.11.1 presents the binary logistic regression analysis examining the association between hazard
exposure and OHS awareness among workers in the petroleum and mining industries. The results indicate that
certain occupational hazards significantly predict the level of OHS awareness across both industries, although
the nature and strength of these associations vary.
In the petroleum industry, workers who were exposed to explosions were found to be 3.23 times more likely to
have higher OHS awareness compared to those who were not exposed (AOR = 3.230, 95% CI: 1.38–7.55, p =
0.007). This finding suggests that the high-risk nature of explosive-related hazards may prompt employees to
be more attentive to safety protocols and emergency procedures. Similarly, workers who experienced
prolonged standing were about 2.66 times more likely to demonstrate greater OHS awareness (AOR = 2.660,
95% CI: 1.24–5.70, p = 0.012), implying that physical discomfort or fatigue-related risks may increase
attentiveness to occupational safety measures.
In the mining industry, exposure to explosions also showed a significant positive association with OHS
awareness, with workers being about 2.18 times more likely to exhibit higher awareness levels (AOR = 2.180,
95% CI: 1.03–4.60, p = 0.040). Likewise, exposure to prolonged standing increased the likelihood of high
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OHS awareness by almost twofold (AOR = 1.990, 95% CI: 1.01–3.95, p = 0.047). Additionally, workers
exposed to chemicals were approximately 2.59 times more likely to report high levels of OHS awareness
(AOR = 2.590, 95% CI: 1.15–5.81, p = 0.021), emphasizing the importance of chemical safety and hazard
communication practices in mining environments.
Table 4.11.1 Association between hazard exposure and OHS awareness
Predictor Variable
Petroleum Industry
Mining Industry
AOR (95% CI)
p-value
AOR (95% CI)
p-value
Explosions (Yes)
3.230 [1.38–7.55]
0.007
2.180 [1.03–4.60]
0.040
Prolonged standing (Yes)
2.660 [1.24–5.70]
0.012
1.990 [1.01–3.95]
0.047
Chemicals (Yes)
—
—
2.590 [1.15–5.81]
0.021
Constant
—
0.001
—
0.005
Association between OHS awareness and perception on causes of accident
As indicated in Table 4.12. The OHS awareness and perceptions on accident causes relationship revealed
generally nonsignificant findings in both industries, with a single variable having statistical significance in the
Petroleum sector.
Fatigue showed no important relationship with awareness was observed in both industries. In petroleum,
62.3% among the attendants who mentioned accident causes as a case of fatigue claimed greater awareness
compared with 68.2% who did not, χ² = 0.53, p = .47. Similarly, in mining, 67.6% who mentioned accident
causes as a case of fatigue claimed greater awareness compared with 64.6% who did not, χ² = 0.18, p = .67.
For laziness, results were also nonsignificant. In Petroleum, 63.4% of workers citing laziness as a cause had
high awareness compared with 66.7% of workers who did not, χ² = 0.17, p = .68. In mining, the trend was the
same, 68.3% of workers observing laziness as a cause having high awareness compared with 65.1% of workers
who did not, χ² = 1.67, p = .68.
With reference to negligence, no significant association was noted in either industry, though a somewhat
higher tendency was noted in mining. In Petroleum, 63.6% reporting negligence as causative were in the high-
awareness group compared with 67.3% who did not, χ² = 0.19, p = .66. In mining, accident causation by
negligence, however, was linked with higher accident-reporting awareness among workers (75.0%) in
comparison with workers not linking causation in this manner (60.9%), though the relationship did not reach
statistical significance, χ² = 3.03, p = .08.
Poor supervision was associated with no significant relationship. In Petroleum, 62.0% connecting poor
supervision and accidents showed high awareness in contrast with 68.1% who did not, χ² = 0.58, p = .45. In
mining, 61.1% connecting poor supervision showed high awareness as compared with 71.8% who did not, χ² =
1.84, p = .18.
Among poor facilities, proportions in the high-awareness groups were similar within industries and groups. In
petroleum, 67.1% who cited poor facilities as a cause were in the high-awareness group compared with 63.0%
who did not, χ² = 0.27, p = .61. In mines, 67.6% who cited poor facilities were in the high-awareness group
compared with 65.3% who did not, χ² = 0.09, p = .77.
The association was significant in the case of faulty equipment, χ² = 3.45, p = .002, with 63.2% who mentioned
faulty equipment as a cause having high awareness compared with 66.7% among workers who did not mention
it. The association was nonsignificant in mining, with a lower level of high awareness among workers who
mentioned faulty equipment (62.1%) compared with 69.4% among workers who did not mention it, χ² = 0.83,
p = .36.
Absence of knowledge as a cause, no significant association was observed. In petroleum, 67.6% of employees
observing it as a cause showed greater awareness compared with 62.3% among those who did not, χ² = 0.43, df
= 1, p = .51. In mining, the tendency was observed in sample groups reporting (67.1%) and not reporting
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(65.7%) the factor, χ² = 0.03, df = 1, p = .80. Third, in absence of training, awareness was not significantly
different in either industry. In petroleum, 69.0% reporting lack of training as a cause compared with 61.1%
reporting it as not a cause, was significantly different in awareness, χ² = 0.98, p = .32. In mining, awareness
was nearly the same among both reporting (66.1%) and not reporting (66.7%) this aspect, χ² = 0.05, p = .94.
Table 4.12 Association between OHS awareness and perception on causes of accident
Causes of accident
Petroleum
χ
2
(
p
-value)
Minging
χ
2
(
p
-value)
OHS awareness
OHS awareness
Low
High
Low
High
Fatigue
0.53(0.47)
0.18(0.67)
Yes
29(37.7)
48(62.3)
25(32.1)
53(67.6)
No
21(31.8)
45(68.2)
23(35.4)
42(64.6)
Laziness
0.17(0.68)
1.67(0.68)
Yes
26(36.6)
45(63.4)
19(31.7)
41(68.3)
No
24(33.3)
48(66.7)
29(34.9)
54(65.1)
Negligence
0.19(0.66)
3.03(0.08)
Yes
32(36.4)
56(63.6)
14(25.0)
42(75.0)
No
18(32.7)
37(67.3)
34(39.1)
53(60.9)
Poor supervision
0.58(0.45)
1.84(0.18)
Yes
27(38.0)
44(62.0)
28(38.9)
44(61.1)
No
23(31.9)
49(68.1)
20(28.2)
51(71.8)
Poor facilities
0.27(0.61)
0.09(0.77)
Yes
23(32.9)
47(67.1)
22(32.4)
46(67.6)
No
27(37.0)
46(63.0)
26)34,7)
49(65.3)
Faulty equipment
3.45(0.002)
0.83(0.36)
Yes
25(36.8)
43(63.2)
22(37.9)
36(62.1)
No
25(33.3)
50(66.7)
26(30.6)
59(69.4)
Lack of awareness
0.43(0.51)
0.032(0.8)
Yes
24(32.4)
50(67.6)
24(32.9)
49(67.1)
No
26(37.7)
43(62.3)
24(34.3)
46(65.7)
Lack of training
0.98(0.32)
0.05(0.94)
Yes
22(31.0)
49(69.0)
21(33.9)
41(66.1)
No
28(38.9)
44(61.1)
27(33.3)
54(66.7)
Source: field Survey (2025)
Association between Hazard Exposure and OHS awareness
In petroleum, PPE knowledge was also high, with 67.7% having high knowledge and 66.0% having low
knowledge. The Chi-square test showed no significant association between the use and knowledge of PPE, χ² =
0.45, p = .83. In mining, however, a larger percentage of workers who used PPE (78.9%) showed high
knowledge against 21.1% who did not. The Chi-square test in our case showed a significant association, χ² =
9.44, p = .002, and we therefore suspect that use of PPE significantly correlated with increased knowledge in
mining but did so in petroleum also.
In petroleum, there was a slight increase in awareness among earplug-using workers compared to non-users
(58.5% vs. 41.5%). The relationship was borderline significant, χ² = 3.39, p = .06. In mines, 45.2% of the users
showed a sense of high awareness against 54.8% among non-users, with no significant association, χ² = 2.04, p
= .15. This indicates that the use of earplugs significantly affected awareness in petroleum but not in mines.
In oil, 44.6% of coat-wearing workers were aware compared with 55.4% of coat-less workers, with no
significant association, χ² = 1.57, p = .21. In mines, awareness levels were the same among the user groups
(49.3%) and never-users (50.7%) with no significant association, χ² = 0.60, p = .81. The general coat
availability in the two industries did not thus impact on awareness.
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In the petroleum, 53.8% of user wearers of gloves reported high awareness compared with 46.2% user non-
wearers, χ²= 0.18, p = .67. In the mines, findings were also similar, 50.7% and 49.3% user and non-user
wearers, respectively, reported high awareness, χ²= 0.14, p = .71. Hence, the glove wear was not associated
with awareness in both sectors.
In petroleum, there was a balanced distribution in levels of awareness among both user and non-user groups,
55.4% and 44.6%, respectively, with no significant association, χ²= 0.00, p = .95. Also in mining, 50.7%
among user groups and 49.3% among the non-user groups expressed a high level of awareness, χ² = 0.31, p =
.58. Goggle use thus did not
In petroleum, wearers were somewhat more aware (52.3%) compared with non-wearers (47.7%), but the
association was nonsignificant, χ²= 2.56, p = .11. In mining, 50.7% of wearers and 49.3% of non-wearers were
aware at a high level, χ² = 0.74, p = .39, and there was no suggestion that helmets were linked with awareness
in either industry.
In petroleum, 47.7% of boot adopters were found to have a high level of awareness compared to 52.3% among
non-users. Chi-square test showed a significant relationship, χ²= 2.51, p = .01, and thus indicated that boots
were associated with awareness in petroleum. But in mining, there was nearly an equal distribution among user
and non-users, 46.6% and 53.4%, respectively, and no significant relationship, χ² = 0.00, p = .99.
Table 4.13 Association between PPE usage and OHS awareness
PPE use
Petroleum
χ
2
(
p
-value)
Mining
χ
2
(
p
-value)
OHS awareness
OHS awareness
Low
High
Low
High
Use of PPE
0.45(0.83)
9.44(0.002)
Yes
33(66.0)
63(67.7)
26(54.2)
75(78.9)
No
17(34.0)
30(32.3)
22(45.8)
20(21.1)
Earplug
3.39(0.06)
2.04(0.15)
Yes
11(37.9)
38(58.5)
9(30.0)
33(45.2)
No
18(62.1)
27(41.5)
21(70.0)
40(54.8)
Overall coat
1.57(0.21)
0.60(0.81)
Yes
17(58.6)
29(44.6)
14(46.7)
36(49.3)
No
12(41.4)
36(55.4)
16(53.3)
37(50.7)
Hand gloves
0.18(0.67)
0.14(0.71)
Yes
17(58.6)
35(53.8)
14(46.7)
37(50.7)
No
12(41.4)
30(46.2)
16(53.3)
36(49.3)
Goggles
0.00(0.95)
0.31(0.58)
Yes
16(55.2)
36(55.4)
17(56.7)
37(50.7)
No
13(44,8)
29(44.6)
13(43.3)
36(49.3)
Helmet
2.56(0.11)
0.74(0.39)
Yes
10(34.5)
34(52.3)
18(60.0)
37(50.7)
No
19(65,5)
31(47.7)
12(40.0)
36(49.3)
Boots
2.51(0.01)
0.00(0.99)
Yes
19(65.5)
31(47.7)
14(46.7)
34(46.6)
No
10(34,5)
34(52.3)
16(53.3)
39(53.4)
Source: field Survey (2025)
Association between Personal Protective Equipment and OHS awareness
Table 4.14. Correlation between occupational safety and health consciousness and personal protective
equipment in petroleum and mining industries.
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Significance of PPE was not significantly associated with level of consciousness in both industries, χ²= 2.51, p
= .47 in petroleum, and χ²= 1.14, p = .76 in mining.
In petroleum, 72.7% of the participants who viewed the use of PPE as very important were found to be having
a high level of awareness, compared with 60.9% who viewed it as important, 54.5% who viewed it as less
important, and 62.5% who viewed it as not important. In mining, 69.8% who viewed the use of PPE as very
important were found to have a high level of awareness, compared with 65.0% who viewed it as important,
64.3% who viewed it as less important, and 50.0% who viewed it as not important. Prompt defect reporting
was also not significantly linked with awareness, χ² = 0.04, p = .84 in petroleum and χ²= 2.93, p = .08 in
mining. In petroleum, 65.8% who promptly reported defects compared with 64.2% who did not, and in mining,
60.0% who promptly reported compared with 73.5% who did not, all were aware.
Accident reporting procedures did not significantly predict awareness in both sectors, χ² = 6.35, p = .96 in
petroleum and χ² = 1.85, p = .39 in mining. In petroleum, there was a high level of awareness among 59.6%
reporting to the supervisors, 66.1% who complained at the management, 77.8% who protested, and 0% who
did not report at all. In mining, 71.7% reporting to the supervisors, 59.6% who complained at the management,
and 67.7% who protested exhibited a high level of awareness.
Table 4.14 Association between Personal Protective Equipment and OHS awareness
Variable
Petroleum
χ
2
(
p
-value)
Mining
χ
2
(
p
-value)
OHS awareness
OHS awareness
Low
High
low
High
Importance of PPE
2.51(0.47)
1.14(0.76)
Very important
15(27.3)
40(72.7)
19(30.2)
44(69.8)
Important
27(39.1)
42(60.9)
21(35.0)
39(65.0)
Less important
5(45.5)
6(54.5)
5(35.7)
9(64.3)
Not important
3(37.5)
5(62.5)
3(50.0)
3(50.0)
Workers report defects promptly
0.04(0.84)
2.93(0.08)
Yes
26(34.2)
50(65.8)
30(40.0)
45(60.0)
No
24(35.8)
43(64.2)
18(36.5)
50(73.5)
Means of reporting accidents
6.35(0.96)
1.85(0.39)
telling immediate supervisor
21(40/4)
31(59.6)
17(38.3)
43(71.7)
laying a complain to management
21(33.9)
41(66.1)
21(40.5)
31(59.6)
Protesting
6(22.2)
21(77.8)
10(32.3)
21(67.7)
I don't report at all
2(100.0)
0(0.0)
0(0.0)
0(0.0)
Source: field Survey (2025)
Objective III: Effectiveness of OHS protocols in reducing work-related incidents
OHS Protocols and Safety Responsibility in Petroleum and Mining Industries
Table 4.15 presents OHS protocol implementation and supervisory and safe conduct responsibility levels
among petroleum and mining industries. The findings are that a very large percentage of the respondents
confirmed that OHS protocols were in place in both sectors, with somewhat higher knowledge in the mining
sector (97.2%) compared with the petroleum sector (95.8%). This would suggest both sectors have effective
OHS systems in place, with somewhat higher implementation in mining.
For supervisory role, results showed that in both industries, it was shared in a fair manner by operators,
supervisors, and managers. However, most typically, supervisors were mentioned in the mining industry
(36.4%), while managers were most prevalent in the petroleum industry (35.7%). This reflects modest
differences in how both industries distribute supervisory tasks in assuring safety.
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In share of safety responsibility, the division was again fairly equally among operators, supervisors, and
managers in both industries. Supervisors were more associated with safety responsibility in both petroleum
(38.5%) and mining (35.0%) industries than operators and managers were. This suggests in both industries that
supervisors are considered important figures in facilitating work practices that are safe, although managers and
operators both have a great deal of responsibility.
These findings demonstrate that OHS protocols are widely implemented across both industries, with relatively
balanced perceptions of supervisory and behavioral safety responsibilities, though subtle variations exist
between petroleum and mining.
Table 4.15 OHS Protocols and Safety Responsibility in Petroleum and Mining Industries
Variable
Industry
Petroleum
Mining
OHS protocol implementation in place
Yes
137(95.8)
139(97.2)
No
6(4.2)
4(2.8)
Responsibility for supervision
Operator
44(30.8)
44(30.8)
Supervisor
48(33.6)
52(36.4)
Manager
51(35.7)
47(32.9)
Responsibility for safe behavior
Operator
44(30.8)
46(32.2)
Supervisor
55(38.5)
50(35.0)
Manager
44(30.8)
47(32.8)
Source: field Survey (2025)
Descriptive Statistics for OHS protocols Effectiveness
Table 4.16 gives descriptive statistics on occupational health and safety (OHS) procedures among petroleum
and mining workers. The participants rated various aspects of OHS on a five-point Likert scale from 1 =
strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree.
The results indicate fairly moderate levels of adherence on a variety of different indices. The highest rated was
application of the correct personal protective equipment (PPE), with a mean rating of 4.51 (SD = 0.86), which
would indicate workers were strongly consistent in conforming in regard to application of PPE. In line with
this, application of correct appliances (M = 4.36, SD = 0.97), machinery guarding (M = 4.17, SD = 1.19), and
periodic equipment checking (M = 4.12, SD = 1.21) were strongly rated, and strongly support conformity in
regard to application of technical safety procedures.
Moderately high levels of effectiveness were observed in staff knowledge on hazards (M = 3.81, SD = 1.17),
working area cleanliness (M = 3.94, SD = 1.26), and emergency readiness (M = 4.08, SD = 1.01), which
suggests that the safety culture in organizations is generally good but requires improvement.
However, comparatively lower effectiveness was found in staff training (M = 3.34, SD = 1.39), staff adherence
to rules (M = 3.44, SD = 1.33), and minimizing unwarranted exposure (M = 3.00, SD = 1.40). These findings
suggest implementation gaps in behavioral aspects of OHS, particularly continuous training, strict adherence to
rules, and proactive actions in restricting harmful exposure.
The findings support that equipment and technical OHS procedures are most effective, and behavioral and
training-related ones require enhancement in a bid to ensure robust workplace safety.
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Table 4.16: Descriptive Statistics for OHS protocols Effectiveness(n=276)
OHS Protocols
Min.
Max.
Mean
Std. Dev.
Staff properly trained
1
5
3.34
1.388
Staff comply with rules
1
5
3.44
1.332
Staff aware of hazards
1
5
3.81
1.173
Machinery guarded
1
5
4.17
1.188
Equipment inspected
1
5
4.12
1.211
Correct appliances used
1
5
4.36
.968
No unnecessary exposure
1
5
3.00
1.401
Correct PPEs used
1
5
4.51
.863
clean working area
1
5
3.94
1.264
Emergency readiness
1
5
4.08
1.013
Source: field Survey (2025)
Overall OHS protocols Effectiveness
Figure 4.5 presents the overall effectiveness of OHS procedures among the respondents. The statistics reveal
that a majority (63%) of the respondents showed a high effectiveness of OHS procedures, and a small
percentage (37 %) showed low effectiveness. This indicates that OHS protocol effectiveness is quite universal
among workers, with two-thirds of workers having a high level of knowledge and understanding. However, as
a fact, still over a third of workers remain low in levels of awareness, and it remains important to address
through specific sensitizations and trainings in a bid to ensure universal uptake and compliance with OHS
standards.
Fig 4.5 Overall Effectiveness of OHS protocols
Association Between Workplace Safety Measures and OHS Protocol Effectiveness
Table 4.17.1. The relationship between workplace safety, workplace safety measures and OHS protocol
effectiveness in petroleum and mining industries.
For proper training, there was a significant association in both the petroleum, χ² = 36.59, p < .001, and mining,
χ² = 18.62, p < .001, industries. In both industries, workers who did not believe that they were offered training
were more likely to report OHS procedures as effective (89.6% in petroleum; 85.5% in mining). At the same
time, workers who believed that they were offered training were less likely to believe OHS procedures as
37%
63%
Not Effective Effective
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effective (40.0% in petroleum; 50.6% in mining). This shows a contradictory situation in which a usual train
does not directly translate into perceived efficacy in OHS procedures.
The results were also important for OHS compliance in petroleum, χ² = 14.31, p < .001, and mining, χ² = 8.94,
p = .003. In both, employees who disagreed that staff adhered to rules were significantly more likely to rate
OHS procedures as effective (80.3% petroleum; 79.4% mining) than were employees who agreed that staff
followed rules (49.3% petroleum; 55.3% mining). This indicates greater reported compliance did not equate
with greater perceived protocol effectiveness.
In contrast, there was no noteworthy association in petroleum, χ² = 2.83, p = .09, or mining, χ² = 3.54, p = .06,
in hazard awareness. Although levels of awareness were various, they didn't significantly predict if workers
perceived OHS protocols as effective or ineffective and, therefore, by itself, hazard awareness possibly does
not strongly establish protocol effectiveness as perceived by workers.
The relationship was strong and significant in both industries: petroleum, χ² = 14.16, p < .001, and mining, χ² =
17.12, p < .001. In petroleum, 93.3% who disagreed that machinery was guarded still rated OHS protocols as
effective, and in mining 100% who disagreed stated efficacy. In agreeing groups, effectiveness decreased
(56.1% in petroleum; 58.1% in mining), demonstrating that perceptions that machinery was guarded did not
match perceived OHS protocol efficacy. Equipment inspection was significantly associated with protocol
efficacy in both industries as well: petroleum, χ² = 17.59, p < .001, and mining, χ² = 12.56, p < .001. In
petroleum, 96.7% who disagreed that inspections were carried out rated OHS protocols as effective compared
with 55.1% who agreed. In mining, 91.2% who disagreed rated effectiveness compared with 58.1% who
agreed.
The findings reveal a surprising association: in both petroleum and mining industries, lack of agreement with
availability of workplace safety provisions (i.e., training, compliance, guarding, and inspections) tended to be
linked with higher perceptions of effectiveness in OHS protocols. This suggests possible mismatches between
implemented safety procedures and workers' day-to-day experiences that could influence perceptions of
effectiveness.
Table 4.17.1: Association Between Workplace Safety Measures and OHS Protocol Effectiveness
Petroleum
χ
2
(
p
-value)
Mining
χ
2
(
p
-value)
OHS protocol
effectiveness
OHS protocol
effectiveness
Not Effective
Effective
Not Effective
Effective
Proper training
36.59(<0.001)
18.62(<0.001)
Disagree
7(10.40
60(89.6)
9(14.5)
53(85.5)
Agree
42960.0)
28(40.0)
38(59.4)
39(50.6)
OHS compliance
14.31(<0.001)
8.94(0.003)
Disagree
13(19.7)
53(80.3)
13(20.6)
50(79.4)
Agree
36(50.7)
35(49.3)
34(44.7)
42(55.3)
Hazard Awareness
2.83(0.09)
3.535(0.06)
Disagree
11(25.6)
32(74.4)
10(22.7)
34(77.3)
Agree
38(40.4)
56(59.6)
37(38.9)
58(61.1)
Machinery Guarded
14.16(<0.001)
17.12(<0.001)
Disagree
2(6.7)
28(93.3)
0(0.0)
27(100.0
Agree
47(43.9)
60(56.1)
47(42.0)
65(58.1)
Equipment inspected
17.59(<0.001)
12.56(<0.001)
Disagree
1(3.3)
29(96.7)
3(8.8)
31(91.2)
Agree
48(44.9)
59(55.1)
44(41.9)
61(58.1)
Source: field Survey (2025)
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Table 4.17.2. The relationship between workplace safety and OHS protocol success in petroleum and mining
industries.
To apply the appropriate safety appliance, a significant association was observed in both industries, but the
strength was varied. In petroleum, χ² = 4.62, p = .03, and in mining, χ² = 13.35, p < .001. In petroleum, 83.3%
among persons who disagreed with application, nevertheless, rated OHS procedures as effective as 60.2%
among persons agreeing only. Furthermore, in mining, 100% among persons who disagreed rated as effective
compared with 59.8% among persons agreeing.
For unnecessary exposure, there was also a strong association in petroleum, χ² = 7.39, p = .007, and in mining,
χ² = 18.27, p < .001. Disagreeing workers were significantly more likely to respond that OHS procedures were
effective compared with agreeing workers (72.9% in petroleum; 80.5% in mining, vs. 50.0% in petroleum;
45.6% in mining, respectively).
Correct use of the right PPE was significantly correlated with workers' perceptions in selected industries. In
petroleum, there was no significant association, χ² = 0.00, p = .99, as nearly equal percentages in effectiveness
were observed among workers who disagreed (64.3%) and agreed (64.2%) on the correctness in OHS
protocols. In mining, a significant association was exhibited, χ² = 8.02, p = .005, in that 94.7% among workers
who disagreed indicated OHS protocols as effective compared with 61.7% among workers who agreed.
For clean working area, there was a big relationship in both industries: petroleum, χ² = 18.71, p < .001, and
mining, χ² = 7.43, p = .006. In petroleum, 92.3% who disagreed with a clean work area rated OHS procedures
as effective compared with 53.1% who agreed. In mining, 81.3% who disagreed rated as effective compared
with 58.2% who agreed.
Finally, emergency knowledge showed no significant association in petroleum, χ² = 2.12, p = .15, where
effectiveness was also mutual among the disagreeing and agreeing groups (75.0% and 61.0%, respectively).
Mining, however, was significantly linked, χ² = 9.28, p = .002, as increased effectiveness was noted among the
disagreeing relative to agreeing groups (86.5% and 58.8%, respectively).
The findings follow a systematic trend in industries and variables: in petroleum and mining, and in all
individual and variable sets, conflict with certain workplace protection procedures (i.e., proper appliances,
undue exposure, clean workplace, and in certain sets, use of PPE or emergency preparedness), on a
contradictory basis, was associated with increased perceptions of OHS protocol efficacy. This evidences a
possible dissonance between intended safety arrangements and workers' experienced realities of OHS protocol
implementation.
Table 4.17.2: Association Between Workplace Safety Measures and OHS Protocol Effectiveness
Variable
Petroleum
χ
2
(
p
-value)
Mining
χ
2
(
p
-value)
OHS protocol
OHS protocol
Not Effective
Effective
Not Effective
Effective
Correct safety Appliance
4.62(0.03)
13.35(<0.001)
Disagree
4(16.7)
20(83.3)
0(0.0)
22(100.)
Agree
45(39.8)
68(60.2)
47(40.2)
70(59.8)
Unnecessary exposure
7.39(0.007)
18.27(<0.001)
Disagree
23(27.1)
62(72.9)
16(19.5)
66(80.5)
Agree
26(50.0)
26(50.0)
31(54.4)
26(45.6)
Correct PPE use
0.00(0.99)
8.02(0.005)
Disagree
5(35.7)
9(64.3)
1(5.3)
18(94.7)
Agree
44(35.8)
79(64.2)
46(38.3)
74(61.7)
Clean Work Area
18.71(<0.001)
7.43(0.006)
Disagree
3(7.7)
36(92.3)
9(18.8)
39(81.3)
Agree
46(46.9)
52(53.1)
38(41.8)
53(58.2)
Know what to do in
2.12(0.15)
9.28(0.002)
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emergency
Disagree
8(25.0)
24(75.0)
5(13.5)
32(86.5)
Agree
41(39.0)
64(61.0)
42(41.2)
60(58.8)
Source: field Survey (2025)
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
Table 4.18: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) on Overall OHS protocols implementation effectiveness
Petroleum/Mining
SS
df
MS
F
Sig.
Between Groups
1.033
1
1.033
4.596
.033
Within Groups
61.576
274
.225
Total
62.609
275
*SS= sum of squares *MS+ mean square *df= degree of freedom
𝐻
0
: The OHS protocol implementation is not effective in both Petroleum and Mining industries in Ghana
𝐻
1
: The OHS protocol implementation is effective in both Petroleum and Mining industries in Ghana
Decision Rule: Reject 𝐻
0
if p-value<0.05
The ANOVA test in Table 4.18 above shows that there is a statistically significant difference in overall
effectiveness in OHS protocol implementation in the petroleum and the mining sectors in Ghana, F(1,274)
=4.596, p=.033. Since the value of the p-value (.033) is less in comparison with the 0.05 threshold, the null
hypothesis (𝐻
0
) that OHS protocol implementation in both industries is ineffective is rejected. This implies
that the alternative hypothesis (𝐻
1
) is accepted, and it demonstrates that OHS protocol implementation is
effective among the petroleum and mining industries in Ghana, with a partial discrepancy in levels of
effectiveness in both industries.
Objective IV: Challenges and barriers to implementation of OHS protocols
Challenges and barriers to implementation of OHS protocols
Table 4.19 gives the challenges and barriers in OHS protocol implementation in petroleum and mining
industries. Both industries faced many challenges, with some differences noted. In petroleum, lack of
managerial support was most mentioned at 29.9%, followed by inadequate training by 24.1%, and time
limitation by 23.4%. In mining workplace, inadequate training by 28.1% and lack of managerial support by
26.6% were most mentioned, followed by time limitation by 24.5%. The lack of adequate equipment was less
mentioned in both industries by 22.8% in petroleum and 20.9% in mining. In communication during OHS
protocols, a significant percentage in petroleum industries mentioned communication as either very well
communicated by 31.4% or well communicated by 29.2%. In mining, communication was less well by 25.2%
than 29.5% citing poor communication, showing a challenge in having good OHS communication in that field.
In frequency, both industries most often faced challenges either all the time by 28.5% petroleum and 28.1%
mining, or often by 27.0% petroleum and 26.1% mining, thus showing recurrent and frequent OHS
implementation challenges. In training, more than half in mining by 58.3% desired more in comparison with
51.8% in petroleum. Equipment access was moderately higher in mining by 65.5% compared with petroleum
by 62.0%, yet a significant percentage in both industries still mentioned inaccessibility. Time management was
a more favorite tool in mining by 57.6% compared with petroleum by 43.8%. Finally, managerial support was
practically divided in both industries evenly, with a bit more in mining by 54.7% mentioning adequate support
compared with petroleum by 52.6%. These results point out both industries share similar barriers, but workers
in mining mentioned inadequate training and poor communication, while workers in petroleum mentioned lack
of managerial support. The results point out systemic gaps that require commitment in a different form by
organizations in the areas of commitment in communication, equipment access, training, and managerial
support in OHS protocol implementation.
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Table 4.19: Challenges and barriers to implementation of OHS protocols
Challenges
Industry
Petroleum
Mining
Challenges faced
lack of proper equipment
31(22.8)
29(20.9)
Insufficient training
33(24.1)
39(28.1)
Time constraints
32(23.4)
34(24.5)
Lack of management support
41(29.9)
37(26.6)
Communication of OHS
Very communicated
43(31.4)
35(25.2)
Adequately communicated
40(29.2)
35(25.2)
Poorly communicated
26(19.2)
41(29.5)
Not communicated at all
28(20.4)
28(20.1)
Frequency of difficulties
Always
39(28.5)
39(28.1)
Often
37(27.0)
37(26.1)
Sometimes
31(22.6)
27(19.4)
Raely
30(21.9)
36(25.9)
Never
0(0.0)
0(0.0)
Additional training
Yes
71(51.8)
81(58.3)
No
66(48.2)
58(41.7)
Accessible equipment
Yes
85(62,0)
91(65.5)
No
52(38.0)
48(34.5)
Time management strategies
Yes
60(43.8)
80(57.6)
No
77(56.2)
59(42.4)
Managerial support
Yes
72(52,6)
76(54.7)
No
65(47.4)
63(45.3)
Barriers to OHS implementation
Theme 1: Inadequate Resources and Equipment
Participants observed poor availability of PPE, outdated equipment, and poor medical facilities.
“Sometimes we cannot find basic protection gear, and we are told to work with what we've got.” (Participant
3)
“They rely on outdated safety equipment, and the management does not readily replace them.” (Interviewee 7)
Theme 2: Weak Training and Awareness
Workers considered training as inconsistent, predominantly theoretical, and never reinforced in practice.
“Once a year we receive OHS training, but accidents happen every day.” (Participant 1)
“Most new staff are not oriented on safety practices properly.” (Participant 9)
Theme 3: Organizational and Management Barriers
Limited commitment by management through cost reduction, production pressure, and no enforcement.
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“Management prioritizes production over safety, so protocols are sometimes overlooked.” (Participant 4)
“Supervisors never insist on following rules during tight deadline situations.” (Respondent 5)
Theme 4: Cultural and Behavioral Factors
Cultural perceptions regarding risk-taking and worker complacency were mutual barriers.
“Certain colleagues think accidents are merely ‘God’s will’ and dismiss safety procedures.” (Participant 8)
“Workers cut corners as they feel that experience is more important than following procedures.” (Participant
6)
Common Issues Across Both Industries:
lack of PPE, inadequate training, emphasis on production by management, culture of complacency, and
inadequate enforcement. The petroleum workers cited aging emergency response centers, and mine workers
mentioned inadequate ventilation and inadequate PPE.
The inquiry found that OHS matters in both sectors were multifaceted, with numerous causes, including a lack
of resources, a lack of effective management commitment, beliefs within a culture, and systemic regulatory
failings. These overlapping problems suggest sector-specific reforms, emphasizing adequate resourcing,
cyclical education, culture change programs, and effective enforcement systems.
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
Level of awareness and understanding of OHS protocols among workers
A major proportion of petroleum workers (79.7%) and mining workers (88.1%) were informed about
Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) policies. Fewer, however, showed evidence of a written OHS policy,
with 53.1% in petroleum and 57.3% in mining affirming. This disconnect between knowledge and written
evidence reflects a larger dilemma observed in the oil and gas sector, whereby OHS management practices are
readily known but application varies (Nkrumah, Liu, Doe Fiergbor, & Akoto, 2021). Also in small mines,
provisions are generally well known in principle, but workers in mines are without access to well-documented
principles or consistent application (Samuel Kwesi et al., 2022).
Perception of adequacy was inconsistent, 60.8% of petroleum and 66.4% of mining stating that existing
policies were satisfactory, yet over a third were doubtful. This reflects earlier research in which, in spite of
companies' having rules in place regarding safety, gaps in coverage and enforcement limit their potential for
protection (Agyemang-Duah, Bansah, Dumakor-Dupey, Assan, & Bekui, 2024). Corresponding research in
mining has suggested that effective OHS management within companies enhances commitment, and therefore
discontent could be a product of inadequate or fragmented policy regimes (Amponsah-Tawiah & Mensah,
2016).
The availability of OHS implementation committees was confirmed by 50.3% of employees in the petroleum
and 62.2% in mining industries, thereby leaving a significant percentage without corresponding mechanisms in
place. The absence of committees diminishes systematic follow-through, an issue observed in small mines,
wherein only 36% of companies routinely followed through on adhering (Samuel Kwesi et al., 2022). Effective
safety committees are the foundation in ensuring safety culture and reducing risk, and their partial non-
existence reflects a lack in institutional commitment.
Fewer than half the workers were provided with a copy of their business’s OHS policy during recruitment
(49.9% petroleum; 57.3% mining). Limiting policy document distribution constrains understanding of rights
and responsibilities. Earlier evidence suggested that workers who are not provided with continuing access to
guidelines demonstrate lower compliance and safety performance, irrespective of overall knowledge (Nkrumah
et al., 2021).
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Training was predominantly periodic, and the most common was once a year (37.8% petroleum; 49.7%
mining), followed by quarterly, and monthly and weekly were rarely practised. Lack of adequate provision of
opportunities for training was confirmed as a perennial weakness in all high-hazard sectors. In mines,
inadequate induction and ineffective refresher courses were blamed for recurrent accidents and low adherence
in the implementation of safety practice (Samuel Kwesi et al., 2022). Accordingly, ineffectiveness in oil and
gas training has been blamed on the knowledge-safety practice discrepancy (Nkrumah et al., 2021).
Different avenues were employed as a method to deliver OHS education. In petroleum, notice boards (56.6%)
and seminars (54.5%) were more in evidence, and in mining, one-on-ones (54.5%) were comparatively more
popular. Literature shows communication channel effectiveness depends on the participation by workers;
personalized approaches such as a one-on-one training are likely to more substantially enhance compliance and
motivation compared with blanket coverage methods such as posters or seminars (Nkrumah et al., 2021).
The overall, two out of every three participants (66%) displayed greater knowledge on OHS procedures, and a
third (34%) displayed lower knowledge. This distribution indicates that while knowledge on OHS is
widespread, there is a large minority of workers who are less knowledgeable. Similar patterns were indicated
in previous studies, whereby most workers are educated on OHS principles yet gaps in diffusion and training
make the rest less knowledgeable, leading to frequent accidents and occupational disease (Agyemang-Duah et
al., 2024). Overcoming low knowledge through frequent training, well-prepared committees, and
communication channels remains essential in enforcing safety culture and compliance.
OHS protocols currently operational in companies
Provisioning of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) shows highest availability, with 39.2% in petroleum and
32.9% in mining showing access. First aid centers fall behind (18.2% petroleum; 14.0% mining), and fire
extinguishers (14.0% compared with 18.9%) and accident alarms (12.2% compared with 19.6%) are more
abundantly provided in mining. Emergency gathering points are also underprovided (17.5% petroleum; 14.7%
mining). Whilst most provisioned is the PPE, essential ones such as first aid, fire extinguishers, alarms, and
gathering points are poorly provided. This imbalance is repeated in port-related settings, in which safety
measures provided for are PPE, emergency gathering points, first aid, alarm systems, and safety
communication—but are implemented with wide variability and incomplete coverage (Abila Abugre, 2024)
The uneven availability of security infrastructure points to scanty overall preparations in hazardous industries.
Perception of working in hazardous conditions reflects that about half the workers report adequate amenities
(51.7% petroleum; 52.4% mining). Exposure to heat stress is considerably higher in petroleum (55.2%) than in
mining (44.8%). Mining experiences higher exposure to chemicals (58.7%) and objects falling from above
(56.6%) compared with petroleum (50.3% and 50.3%, respectively). Exposure to explosions is roughly
comparable (44.1% vs. 46.9%). Long hours standing are more common in petroleum (49.0%) than in mining
(39.2%), and long hours sitting are higher in petroleum (55.2%) than in mining (50.3%). The disparity in
profiles of hazards reflects the different working environments. Previous reviews confirm that multifaceted or
complex hazards—which involve physical, chemical, mechanical, and psychosocial risks—are important in
both industries (Agyemang-Duah et al., 2024)
Over half report involvement in an accident (53.1% petroleum; 50.3% mining). Fatigue is noted by around
54% in both industries as a cause. Laziness (49.7% petroleum; 42.0% mining) and poor supervision (49.7%;
50.3%) are also invariably mentioned. Negligence is considered more seriously in petroleum (61.5%) than in
mining (39.2%), and poor infrastructure (49.9%; 47.6%) and faulty equipment (47.6%; 40.6%) are also
invariably mentioned. Lack of awareness (51.7%; 51.0%) and lack of training (49.7%; 43.4%) are also
invariably mentioned. These perceptions indicate general patterns observed in high-hazard industries, in which
worker fatigue, poor supervision, inadequate infrastructure, and inadequate training are recognized accident
contributors (Agyemang-Duah et al., 2024)
Understanding what to do after an accident is also high: 82% in petroleum report knowledge of correct actions,
with a corresponding large share in mining. Nevertheless, close to a fifth in petroleum and a minority in
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mining do not have such knowledge. Effective safety orientation continues as important, particularly in
situations with a high frequency of hazards (Martek et al., 2024)
Reported use of PPE is 67.1% in petroleum and 70.6% in mining. Use varies by specific product: earplugs
(52.1% petroleum; 40.8% mining), coats (48.9%; 48.5%), gloves (55.3%; 49.5%), goggles (55.3%; 52.4%),
helmets (46.8%; 53.4%), and boots (53.2%; 46.6%). Even though overall use of PPE is moderately high, the
differential in use of particular items suggests differential supply and enforcement patterns. Among artisanal
miners, compliance with use of PPE depends significantly on access, price, and perception of danger—
variables that affect levels of compliance (Aram et al., 2021)
Workforce safety behaviors indicate most find PPE quite important (38.5% petroleum; 44.1% mining) or
important (48.3%; 42.0%) and only small minorities think it’s less or not important. Roughly half indicate
defects are reported promptly (53.1% petroleum; 52.4% mining). Accident reporting in petroleum points in the
direction of complaints by management (43.4%) or immediate supervisors (36.4%), with some by protesting
(18.9%) and few by not reporting at all (1.4%). Accident reporting in mining favors immediate supervisors by
a wide margin followed by complaints by management and protesting (21.7%). These results indicate contrasts
in work culture and trust issues, themes explored in reports on the value of reporting mechanisms in safety
cultures (Agyemang-Duah et al., 2024)
Age, sex, education, and experience do not significantly correlate with OHS awareness, though there are small
differences. Awareness is kept at a generally high level within groups. This goes along with overall findings
that OHS activity and awareness are more inclined on workplace policy and culture than on individual
characteristics (Martek et al., 2024).
Statistical relationships find that OHS policy knowledge significantly increases awareness in petroleum, but
not in mining. Written policy strongly correlates with awareness in both mining and petroleum. Perceived
policy adequacy, implementation committees, and job commencement receipt are significantly correlated with
awareness, too. Work-based frequency does not significantly contribute to awareness. Communication media--
seminars, individual briefings, union meetings, and, in mining, notice boards--register strongly positive
relationship with increased awareness, thus emphasizing individual and dynamic communication. Facility
availability is associated with awareness in mining, mainly specific personal protective equipment and points
of assembly, but none in petroleum. These patterns reflect evidence that access, institutional arrangements, and
participation mechanisms are more useful in raising awareness than are passive or infrequent work-based
training (Martek et al., 2024; Agyemang-Duah et al., 2024)
Hazard awareness and exposure have inconsistent relations. Protracted standing hours are linked with reduced
awareness in both sectors, chemical exposure with higher awareness only in mining, explosion exposure with
significance in petroleum, and other types of hazards have low impact. These nuanced relations indicate that
certain exposures are capable of stimulating workers' concern over safety more than are certain others. Similar
complexity in relations among exposure and awareness is noted in literature on exposure assessment (Exposure
Assessment, 2015)
These relations are typically nonsignificant, with the exception that in petroleum, defective equipment shows a
significant relation. The overall no significance means that ascertaining cause does not directly reflect or
influence overall knowledge of safety. The use of PPE is significantly linked with awareness in mines, yet
petroleum mines are an exception. Certain individual pieces of PPE show weak or no significant association.
The value placed on PPE, defect reporting, and accident reporting are all mechanisms that are no significantly
linked with awareness. This suggests that, although safety behaviors and PPE are reinforced, they will not
universally reflect greater awareness, particularly if supply or culture reinforcement differentiates by industry.
Effectiveness of OHS Protocols in Reducing Work-Related Incidents
A vast majority of workers verified the presence of OHS procedures in both mining and petroleum sectors,
with somewhat higher recognition in mining (97.2%) compared to petroleum (95.8%). This indicates that well-
established OHS systems are firmly embedded in both sectors. Allocation of supervisory role was also
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moderately balanced, yet supervisors were more prominently referred to in mining and managers somewhat
more in petroleum. In both situations, supervisors were the primary actors in maintaining work safety
practices. Similar findings are noted in industries considered hazardous in which supervisors are the frontline
enforcers of safety bridging organizational policy with workers' behaviors (Okoye & Okolie, 2021; Fargnoli et
al., 2022).
High levels of perceived efficacy were observed in technical details in OHS implementation. The use of the
correct PPE received the highest rating (M = 4.51), followed by the use of the right appliances (M = 4.36),
machinery protection (M = 4.17), and routine checking on equipment (M = 4.12). These indicate strong
compliance with procedures that are more tangible, easier to monitor, and more directly connected to legal
requirements. Similar trends have been observed in oil, gas, and building industries in which technical
protection is generally highlighted and maintained adequately (Chen et al., 2020; Goh et al., 2021).
Moderately high levels of effectiveness were seen in accident awareness, clean workspaces maintenance, and
emergency preparedness, with mean 3.8-4.1. While they reflect a generally positive safety culture, they reflect
potential improvement areas in maintaining awareness and preparedness. Previous research shows that hazard
awareness and emergency preparedness vary with frequency of drills, communication, and Management
perceived commitment (Martek et al., 2024; Agyemang-Duah et al., 2024).
Lower means were also registered in staff training (M = 3.34), rules adherence (M = 3.44), and unwarranted
exposure reduction (M = 3.00). The gaps reflect points of weakness in behavioral OHS application. Where
procedures are established, repetitive training and hardline enforcement of compliance are less effective.
Comparable concerns are observed in mining and energy literature in which weak training diminishes thelong-
term effectiveness of safety efforts despite availability of technological controls (Boadi & Akuamoah-Boateng,
2020; Aram et al., 2021).
Total rating of effectiveness shows that 63% of workers rated OHS protocols as very effective and 37% rated
lowly. This points towards widespread yet patchy application of OHS practices. The fact that there is a sizable
minority with low effectiveness reporting is a need for increased sensitization and targeted interventions.
Experience in other hazardous industries shows that, irrespective of well-formulated protocols, workers'
participation and faith in the safety systems are decisive in their perceived as well as practical effectiveness
(Shafique et al., 2019).
The association tests exhibited an inconsistent pattern: employees who disagreed there were provisions on
safety in the form of training, adherence to procedures, machinery guarding, or equipment inspections tended
to perceive greater levels of OHS effectiveness. As illustrations, in petroleum, 93.3% among workers who
disagreed there was machinery guarding in spite of it still perceived OHS protocols as effective compared with
56.1% among those agreeing. In mining, 100% among workers who disagreed there was machinery guarding
perceived OHS protocols as effective compared with 58.1% among those agreeing. The inconsistent tendency
reflects the possible disassociation between lived realities in a workplace and prescribed provisions in a
workplace. Workers may be giving more priority to informal routines, individual judgment, or instructions
from supervisors as compared with observed compliance. Similar inconsistencies have been noted in the
literature on safety culture, whereby having a lot of observed safety rules does not automatically contribute to
higher levels of perception on effectiveness (Shalini, 2020; Cooper, 2022).
ANOVA results confirmed OHS protocol effectiveness differs significantly between petroleum and mining
industries, F(1,274) = 4.596, p = .033. This implies that, despite the overall effectiveness in both industries,
there are differences in implementation and impact in a given context. Mining, having higher exposures and
greater regulatory cover, potentially stimulates higher perceptions of OHS relevance compared to petroleum.
This aligns with inter-industry evidence showing industry context influences both compliance and perceptions
in safety provisions (Khdair et al., 2019; Fargnoli et al., 2022). The results are generally that OHS procedures
in the petroleum and mining industries are good, particularly in equipment and technical aspects, yet less
efficient in behavioral aspects, such as in training, compliance, and minimization of exposure. The unexpected
relationships point towards a larger area for investigation into workers' perceptions and knowledge on safety
provisions, highlighting incompatibilities between provisions on paper and lived experiences. Refinement in
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continuous education, alignment of written procedures and workers lived experiences, and enhancement in
participation-based safety culture are needed in mitigating work-related accidents and entrenching OHS
efficacy.
Challenges and barriers to implementation of OHS protocols
The research revealed that both the petroleum and mining sectors face significant challenges in undertaking
occupational health and safety (OHS) procedures, but the nature and emphasis of challenges vary moderately
in the two sectors. In the petroleum sector, lack of managerial support was most prominently cited among the
challenges (29.9%), followed by inadequate training (24.1%) and time limitation (23.4%). In the mining
industry, inadequate training (28.1%) and lack of managerial support (26.6%) were the overwhelming
challenges, and time limitation (24.5%) was also a significant force. The focus identifies systemic
shortcomings in organizational commitment, resource allocation, and readiness of the workforce as challenges
that hamper effective OHS procedures implementation.
The fact that issues with training are sustained in both industries points to a structural defect in the building of
worker capability. More than half of the miners (58.3%) and over half the petroleum workers (51.8%)
expressed a desire for more education. Qualitative accounts by participants confirmed this, in citing irregular
and predominantly theoretical trainings, and a lack of orientation on work by new workers. This is in
alignment with Tawiah and Baah (2019), whose commentary was that inconsistent and irregular training
watered down compliance with OHS behaviors and results in frequent accidents. Boateng and Amedofu
(2017), in a similar vein, noted that within the extractive industries, a lack of sustained safety education
vitiated OHS knowledge translation into workday activity, and thereby watered down safety culture.
Management support was also a determining factor in OHS implementation. The workers verified that
production time was prioritised by most supervisors at the expense of security, and enforcement of the rules
was inconsistent. This is in line with Mensah and Frempong (2021), who found that weak managerial
commitment in petroleum companies was significantly associated with higher levels of non-adherence to
protocol. Furthermore, Audu et al. (2018) established that if managerial support was low, OHS implementation
was considered a formality and not a operating necessity, and therefore its influence was confined.
Communication of OHS procedures and policies were variable. In petroleum, communication was rated by
most workers as adequate or well implemented, but in mining, inadequate communication (29.5%) was barely
greater than positive responses. The disparity reflects intersectoral variations in practices, with petroleum
companies having more formal communication systems in general. Nonetheless, ineffective communication of
OHS information in mining is a setback repeated in previous work on Africa. In response, for example, Akpan
and Patrick (2020) observed that ineffective communication channels in Nigeria’s petroleum industry created
knowledge gaps in workers, reducing compliance with minimum safety procedures.
The problem of limited resources and equipment was also evidenced in participants’ testimonies, wherein
improper provision of personal protective equipment (PPE), overdependence on outdated tools, and lags in
procuring equipment were observed. Similar evidence was gathered in previous studies. Boateng and Amedofu
(2017) observed that outdated infrastructure and uneven supply of PPE significantly affect safety performance
in mines. Akpan and Patrick (2020) also noted that improper emergency response infrastructure among
petroleum companies left workers more exposed during accidents. Such a limitation on resources directly
violates world standards on safety and points to systematic lack of investment in occupational safety.
Behavioral and cultural barriers also affected workers’ attitudes in OHS implementation. Some attributed
accidents to fate or “God’s will,” and others attributed accidents to complacency, cutting corners, or
overreliance on individual experience rather than monitoring safety procedures. These attitudes are similar to
Tawiah and Baah’s (2019), who observed that in African mines, cultural perceptions on risk usually outweigh
strict adherence in safety procedures. This example shows that OHS challenges are socio-cultural as well as
structural and require certain behavioural corrective actions.
Finally, systemic issues such as weak regulatory enforcement and inconsistent application were universal
problems. The workers mentioned that inspections were a rarity and, if conducted, were inclined to focus on
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paperwork and less on the conditions on the ground. These findings are congruent with Mensah and Frempong
(2021), who commented that the effectiveness of OHS procedures is compromised by corruption, lack of
effective regulatory capability, and ineffective mechanisms for enforcing OHS in Africa's extractive industries.
Without effective monitoring and sanctions regimes, otherwise well-thought procedures are also likely to fail
in implementation. Ultimately, the problems observed in both petroleum and mining sectors are multifaceted,
including resource deficiencies, weak managerial support, inadequate training, social attitudes, and systemic
enforcement failings. Although lack of managerial support and ageing equipment were concerns raised by the
petroleum industry, inadequate training, subpar PPE, and communication were concerns expressed by the
mining sector. These concerns all indicate OHS implementation enhancement needing a multi-dimensional
response, including organisational commitment, continuing training, adequate resourcing, social culture shift
initiatives, and strengthened regulatory enforcement.
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary of Findings
The study compared how Occupational Health and Safety procedures were applied in petroleum and mining
industries. Four drivers guided the study: (i) OHS protocol knowledge and awareness among workers, (ii)
OHS procedures in operations in both industries, (iii) level of implementation and compliance, and (iv)
challenges and barriers in effective implementation.
The findings were that OHS protocol knowledge was generally high, with most participants reporting OHS
policy knowledge. Some areas were, however, noted in policy communication, adequacy, and repeated
training, with mining having relatively stronger systems in place compared to petroleum. Mechanisms in
communication were also varied in the industries, with petroleum workers reporting enhanced policy
communication, and mining workers reporting inadequate communication practices.
Despite general knowledge, there were sustained issues in OHS protocol implementation. Inadequate training,
managerial support, equipment, and systemic enforcement frailties were main inhibitors. Attitudes of risk-
taking, complacency, and inadequate regulatory monitoring also impaired compliance. The qualitative
evidence reinforced the gaps, citing limited resources, variable training, production pressures, and external
systemic barriers as recurrent issues. Both industries, overall, were ready to adopt OHS, but there were
sustained structural, organisational, and cultural obstacles that deterred overall uptake.
Limitations
The study was conducted in petroleum and mining industries only and therefore did not allow generalizability
of findings in all industries with comparable levels of risks as noted above, for example, manufacturing or
construction industries. The data were solely self-reported and were therefore likely affected by social
desirability bias, especially in response to questions concerning following safety procedures. Time and
resources were only available to include cross-sectional, but not longitudinal, measurement, and therefore
could have distinguished patterns over time. Furthermore, while regulatory perspectives were considered
through the literature, the study did not directly include perspectives of policymakers or inspectors, and could
therefore have enriched findings.
Conclusion
In spite of a reasonable level of knowledge and recognition of OHS policies among workers in the petroleum
and mining industries, recognition in itself does not translate into effective implementation. Key gaps remain
in the regularity of training, communication, and support by managers, and lower the effectiveness of OHS
provisions. Low levels of resources, inadequate regulatory control, and cultural attitudes contribute to these
challenges, and cement systemic issues in advancing workplace safety. Oil companies showed relative
strength in policy communication, and mining companies showed stronger infrastructure support for
committee development and training emphasis. Nevertheless, both sectors are affected by perennial problems
that are symptoms of more general systemic shortcomings in OHS governance, which require a holistic
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approach, including organisational dedication, worker participation, culture transformation, and effective
regulatory requirements enforcement.
Recommendations
Based on the findings, the following are the suggested recommendations:
i. The industries need to implement more frequent, useful, and interactive training schemes, so that fresh
entrants are well oriented and in-service staff are kept up-to-date.
ii. Management must prioritize safety alongside productivity by investing in OHS infrastructure,
supporting committees, and enforcing safety rules consistently.
iii. Sufficient and modern personal protective equipment (PPE) and emergency response equipment ought
to be availed in order to lessen worker exposure.
iv. The OHS policies shall be Communicated and made Available by way of notice boards, electronic
medium, and workers' unions, respectively, in order that all workers are informed.
v. Safety culture transformation programs must be implemented in order to combat complacency and
fatalistic attitudes, and emphasize that accidents are preventable by following procedures.
vi. Regulators should conduct regular, unannounced inspections focusing on workplace conditions rather
than paperwork. Penalties for non-compliance must be enforced consistently to drive accountability.
vii. Safety committees and periodic feedback mechanisms ought to involve workers in OHS decisions, and
therefore, mutual ownership in safety practice is encouraged.
Contributions to Knowledge
The paper contains several innovative additions to knowledge:
i. It provides comparative information on petroleum and mining industries, uncovering OHS
implementation strengths and weaknesses particular to industries.
ii. It combined quantitative data and testimonies of participants in presenting a holistic picture of OHS
challenges, and it yielded greater depth than quantitative research alone.
iii. It understands the contribution of attitudes linked with culture, such as complacency and fatalism, in
undermining safety compliance, a theme often neglected in OHS work.
iv. The study verifies empirically that manager support is a determining factor in OHS protocol
effectiveness and thereby lends support to leaders' responsibility.
v. The findings provide practical directions both for organizations and regulatory officials, thereby
contributing to policy-making and practical occupational health and safety governance reforms.
Suggestions for Further Study
i. Future work could be extended from petroleum and mining industries to more dangerous industries
such as transport, manufacturing, and construction in general in order to make comparative inferences.
ii. Longitudinal research would be helpful in observing OHS impact in the long run and ascertaining
sustainability.
iii. Beyond work on the role of cultural beliefs and behavioral attitudes in ascertaining compliance, more
work would also be fruitful, in particular through ethnographic approaches.
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iv. In addition, incorporation of perceptions by supervisors, policymakers, and regulators would increase
depth in systemic enforcement challenges analysis.
v. Lastly, future research could examine the cost–benefit analysis of OHS expenditures in order to make a
stronger case for managerial and government support.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I express gratitude to the Almighty God for granting me the knowledge, strength, and health to complete this
thesis. I sincerely acknowledge the invaluable contributions of my supervisors, Prof. Ogbonna Friday Joel, and
Prof. Kwasi Opoku Boadu, for their patience, guidance, corrections, and encouragement throughout this
research. Special appreciation goes to my parents, Mr. and Mrs. Parmaak, and my wife, Catherine Nabila
Musah, and the children, for their unwavering support and encouragement, both physically and spiritually. The
researcher would also like to appreciate the support of the World Bank Africa Centre of Excellence in Oil Field
Chemicals Research (Ace-Cefor) for the full scholarship support for the program
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Declaration
I, JUSTICE, BADAM PARMAAK, with registration number G2022/PhD/ACE-CEFOR/FT/002, declare
that the work in this thesis, EVALUATION OF OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY
IMPLEMENTATION PROTOCOLS OF THE MINING AND PETROLEUM INDUSTRIES IN
GHANA was carried out by me: that is my original work, and it has not been submitted wholly or in part for
the award of a degree in this or any other institution.
JUSTICE BADAM PARMAAK
Signature/Date………………………………………………………………….
Confirmation by Supervisors
Prof. Ogbonna Friday Joel
Signature/Date……………………………….
Prof. Kwasi Opoku Boadu
Signature/Date……………………………….
Certification
University Of Port Harcourt
School Of Graduate Studies
Evaluation Of Occupational Health And Safety Implementation Protocols Of The Mining And
Petroleum Industries In Ghana By
JUSTICE, Badam Parmaak
(G2022/PhD/ACE-CEFOR/FT/002)
The board of Examiners certifies that the work in this Thesis is accepted in partial Fulfilment of the
requirements for the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in Occupational Health and Safety.
Designation Name Signature Date
Supervisor 1:
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Supervisor 2:
Director of Centre:
Dean Faculty of OHSM:
Chairman Departmental Graduate Studies Board
External Examiner:
Dean, School of Graduate Studies/Chairman Board of Examiners
Dedication
I solemnly dedicate this work to Almighty God, the most gracious and the most merciful, and my cherished
family for their affection and encouragement. I also want to dedicate this work to my beautiful wife, Catherine
Nabila Musah, and my adorable children: Henriatta, Jean, and Joelle
APPENDIX: SUERVEY QUESTIONNAIRE
Section A: Bio data of Respondents
1. Age of Respondents …………
2. Gender Male ( ) Female( )
3. Level of Education Basic( ) SSCE. /WASSCE( ) First Degree( ) Postgraduate()
4. Organization of work Oil& Gas( ) Mining( )
6. How long have worked in this industry………………….
Section B: Awareness of OHS protocols
S/N
Questions
Yes
No
7
Have you heard of OHS policy as pertains to the industry you worked in?
8
Does your company have an OHS policy?
8a
If yes, mention at least three thing you know about your company OHS policy
9
In your view, is the policy adequate for the protection and safety of employees?
10
Is there an OHS policy implementation committee to enforce safety standards
11
During the time of your employment, were you given on the companies health and safety
policy standard?
12. How often does your company organize training on health and safety precautions for staff
Weekly( ) Monthly ( Quarterly( ) Annually ( ) Not at all( )
13. How is health and safety education carry out in the company?
OHS education
Yes
No
Seminar
Post on the notice board
One-on-one sessions
Union meeting
Other(Specify)
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14. What OHS facilities do you have in your unit? PPEs ( ) First aid( ) Fire extinguisher( ) Accident
alarms( ) Emergency assembly point( ) Others Specify( )
15. Are the facilities adequate? Yes ( ) No( )
16. What are some of the hazards you are expose to in the field of work
Hazards
Yes
No
Heat
Chemicals
Falling Objects
Explosions
Prolong Standing
Prolong sitting
17. Have you ever being involve in an accident in your work place before? Yes ( ) No( )
18. Do you think the following can cause accident?
Factor
Yes
No
Fatigue
Laziness
Negligence
Poor supervision
Poor facilities
Faulty equipment
Lack of awareness
Lack of training
19. Do you know what do in event of accident ? Yes ( ) No ( )
20. if yes to Q13, Outline the procedures followed to report accident when they occur
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
21. Do you use PPE in your line of work? Yes( ) No ( )
22. If yes to Q15, what kind of PPEs have your ben using?
PPE
Yes
No
Earplug
Overall coat
Hand gloves
Goggles
Helmet
Boots
Others (Specify)…………………
23. How important do you think it is for staff to always be in PPEs during work?
Very Important( ) Important( ) Less important( ) Not important( )
24. Do workers report defects or hazards of risk promptly? Yes( ) No( )
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25. By what means do you report accidents? Telling immediate supervisor( ) laying a complain to
management( ) Protesting( ) I don’t report at all ( )
26. What role do you play to ensure that, the companies health and safety policies is maintained?
………………………………………………………………………………………..
Section C: Effectiveness of implementation of OHS protocols
27. Whose primary responsibility is it to ensure that, people are properly supervised for safety at all times?
Operator ( ) Supervisor( ) Manager( )
28. Whose primary responsibility is it to ensure that, people work and behave safely at all times?
Operator ( ) Supervisor( ) Manager( )
29. To what extent do you agree or disagree on the effectiveness of OHS protocols in your company using a
Likert scale where 1= strongly Disagree, 2 Disagree, 3= neutral 4= Agree and 5= Strongly Disagree
Statement
1
2
3
4
5
All staff are properly trained on the company’s OHS protocols
Staff are complying with OHS rules in their line of work
Staff are aware of nature of safety hazards related to their work
Machinery is properly guarded when used
All equipment/machinery are constantly inspected to ensure they are safe for use
Staff are using correct safety appliances properly
Staff are not unnecessarily expose to hazardous substances
Staff are using the correct PPEs
The working area is always clean, clear and tidy
All staff know what to do in events of emergency
Section D: Challenges to OHS protocols
30. what Challenges do you face in following OHS protocols at your work place?
Lack of proper equipment( ) Insufficient training( ) Time Constraints( )
Lack of Management support( ) Others( Specify) ……………………………..
31. How well do you feel OHS protocols are communicated to employees at your work place
Very Communicated( ) Adequately Communicated( ) Poorly Communicated( ) Not communicated at
all( )
32. How often do you encounter difficulties in adherence to OHS protocols?
Always( ) Often( ) Sometimes( ) Rarely( ) Never( )
33. What type of support will help you to adhere to OHS protocols more effectively
Type of support
Yes
No
Additional training
More accessible equipment
Better time management strategies
Increase managerial support
Others (Specify).,,,,,,,,,,,
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34: What are the barriers affecting the effective implementation of OHS protocols
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
Thank you for your response
