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ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI | Volume XII Issue XV October 2025 | Special Issue on Public Health
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Fish Consumption Patterns and Contribution of Fish to Diets of Rural
Households in a Fishing Region in Zambia.
Geofrey Maila
*
, Pamela A. Marinda, John Shindano, Nyambe Lisulo Mkandawire
University of Zambia, School of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Food Science and Nutrition,
Lusaka, Zambia.
*Corresponding Author
DOI: https://doi.org/10.51244/IJRSI.2025.1215PH000176
Received: 02 October 2025; Accepted: 08 October 2025; Published: 11 November 2025
ABSTRACT
Fish provides high-quality proteins and essential micronutrients, which can help reduce undernutrition.
However, little is known about fish consumption patterns and its contribution to rural household diets. This study
aims to assess fish consumption patterns and the contribution of fish to rural household diets in the Luwingu
district of Zambia.
A cross-sectional study was conducted among 132 households selected using a multi-stage sampling method
from a fishing area in Luwingu district. Data were collected on women of reproductive age (15-49 years),
children (6-59 months), and men (18-64 years) in the selected households. The households were surveyed using
a 24-hour dietary recall and a 7-day dietary recall for the consumption of animal-source foods.
A 24-hour dietary recall and a 7-day dietary recall showed that fish was the most consumed animal-source food,
with 75.8% and 100% of households consuming fish, respectively. In children under five years of age, the
average quantities of fish consumed per day were 60.4 ± 35.2 g (6-12 months), 73.8 ± 51.0 g (13-36 months),
and 87.9 ± 45.7 g (37-59 months). Women and men had mean daily intakes of 162.1 ± 86.0 g and 176.3 ± 70.0
g of fish, respectively.
A significant difference in protein intake (p = 0.042) was observed among children. In adults, differences in
intake were noted in proteins (p = 0.028) and iron (p = 0.008). Compared to other foods, fish contributed more
to protein and calcium intake in children, women, and men, while it contributed less to iron and vitamin A intake
across all sub-categories of study participants' diets.
The results of this study demonstrate that fish play a critical role in the household diets of Luwingu district. It
can be used as a strategy to improve food and nutrition security, ultimately contributing to the reduction of
undernutrition.
Keywords: Fish, nutrient intake, food consumption, undernutrition, Zambia
INTRODUCTION
Fish is a vital component of the global food system, accounting for approximately 17% of the animal protein
consumed worldwide (FAO, 2018b). Approximately 3.2 billion people obtain nearly 20% of their per capita
animal protein intake from fish (FAO, 2018b). Adequate fish consumption enhances the micronutrient density
of diets, helping to prevent deficiencies that can impair health and development, particularly during pregnancy,
lactation, and early childhood (Kawarazuka & Béné, 2010).
Children aged six months and above require nutrient-rich complementary foods that supply vitamins, minerals,
essential fatty acids, and high-quality proteins, nutrients readily available in animal-source foods such as fish
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(Dewey, 2013). Despite this, nearly half of children under two years old globally do not consume sufficient
amounts of animal-source foods (UNICEF, 2019).
Globally, one in three children under five experiences stunted growth, while one in two suffers from at least one
micronutrient deficiency (UNICEF, 2019). The Joint Child Malnutrition Estimates (2024) report that 23.2% of
children under five are stunted and 6.6% are wasted, underscoring the continuing burden of malnutrition
worldwide (UNICEF et al., 2025).
In Africa, fish is a cornerstone of food and nutrition security, providing essential proteins to over 400 million
people (WorldFish Centre, 2009). It contributes about 22% of total protein intake in sub-Saharan Africa (Béné
& Heck, 2005). However, per capita fish consumption remained low at 9.1 kg per year in 2010, less than half
the global average of 20.2 kg (AUC-NEPAD, 2014; FAO, 2018b).
Diets across sub-Saharan Africa often lack diversity. Many children do not consume foods from the minimum
five food groups required to meet dietary adequacy (UNICEF, 2019). In low-income countries, where diets are
dominated by calorie-dense staples, fish serves as an affordable and locally available source of nutrients that can
enhance dietary diversity (O’Meara et al., 2021; FAO, 2018b).
The malnutrition burden in Africa remains high, with 43% of children under five stunted and 27% wasted, both
above global averages (UNICEF et al., 2025). Increasing fish consumption among vulnerable populations could
help reduce undernutrition, micronutrient deficiencies, and disease burdens (Benson, 2008; Genschick et al.,
2017; WorldFish Center, 2011). Yet, data on fish consumption and its nutritional contributions remain scarce
and underrepresented in national statistics (Kawarazuka & Béné, 2010). Consequently, the role of fish in food
and nutrition security has been underestimated in many African policy frameworks (Kolding et al., 2016; Roos
et al., 2003).
In Zambia, fish is the most consumed animal-source food, contributing over 20% of dietary animal protein
(NFDS Africa, 2016; NFNC, 2009). In the Northern Province, fish contributes approximately 26% of dietary
protein for women and 16% for children aged 6–59 months (Alaofe et al., 2014). Despite the province’s
proximity to major water bodies, including Lakes Bangweulu, Tanganyika, Chila, and Mweru-Wantipa, as well
as extensive swamps and wetlands, diets remain deficient in vitamin A, iron, and calcium, nutrients abundant in
fish (Alaofe et al., 2014; Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock & Central Statistics Office, 2019).
Nationally, 32% of children under five are stunted, 12% underweight, and 3% wasted (Zambia Statistics Agency
et al., 2024). Micronutrient deficiencies are widespread: vitamin A deficiency affects 26.2% of children under
five, and anaemia affects 60.9% of women of childbearing age and 28% of children aged 6–59 months. Iron
deficiency affects 12.6% of children and 19% of women (NFNC et al., 2024).
The Northern Province records some of the highest rates of malnutrition in the country, with 42.6% of children
stunted, 29.1% vitamin A deficient, and 37.7% anaemic. Among women of reproductive age, 26.5% are anaemic
(Zambia Statistics Agency et al., 2024; NFNC et al., 2024). Although fish is increasingly recognised for its
nutritional importance (Béné et al., 2015; Gibson et al., 2020; Sam et al., 2015), data on its consumption patterns
remain limited. Existing studies have largely focused on urban settings (Marinda et al., 2018; Genschick et al.,
2018; Hichaambwa, 2012) with little information available for rural households (Nsonga, 2015).
Given its nutrient density and accessibility, fish holds an important place in food-based nutrition strategies.
Expanding its consumption could help reduce undernutrition and micronutrient deficiencies, especially among
the poor (Kawarazuka & Béné, 2010; Béné et al., 2015). However, the lack of disaggregated consumption data,
particularly at the rural household level, has limited its inclusion in national nutrition policies and development
programs (Béné et al., 2015).
The current study aimed to establish the fish consumption patterns and their contribution to rural household diets
in Zambia. The specific objectives of the study were: (1) to establish the consumption patterns of fish and other
animal-source foods among rural households, (2) to determine the intake of fish among rural households, and
(3) to determine the nutritional contribution of fish to rural household diets.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study setting
The study was conducted in Luwingu district of Northern Province in Zambia. This site was purposively selected
as a study area because it is a rural district with high fishing activity. It has abundant streams, wetlands, and 500
square kilometres of Lake Bangweulu situated within its boundaries. The district was also reported to have
limited information on fish consumption (Nsonga, 2015) and most of its population is vulnerable to food
insecurity. Among the wards in Luwingu, Ibale ward was purposively selected because of its proximity to water
bodies. A ward is the smallest political administrative unit in Zambia.
Study design
A cross-sectional study design was used to carry out the household survey, which established the consumption
patterns of animal-source foods in Ibale ward of Luwingu district, with a detailed focus on fish consumption
patterns and its nutritional contribution to diets of women of reproductive age (15-49 years), children aged 6-59
months, and men (18-64 years) who were the target population.
Sample size determination and Sampling procedures
The sample size of households was determined using the Cochran’s formula (Cochran, 1963), for calculating
the sample size
n = Z
2
pq / e
2
where: n is the sample size, Z is the critical value of desired confidence level of 95% (corresponding z-score
value is 1.96), p is the proportion of an attribute that is present in the population estimated to be 9%, contribution
of fish to a meals in Northern Province (Alaofe et al., 2014) and q = 1–p, and e desired level of precision of 5%
(0.05). The calculated sample size of 126 was adjusted for attrition and non-response rate at 5% to obtain the
optimal sample size of 132 households. A total of 132 households were surveyed in the study, which comprised
of 132 women of childbearing age (15-49 years), 132 children (6-59 months), and 46 men (18-64 years).
Multi-stage sampling was used in this study. First, Ibale ward was purposively selected as the operational area
for the project. A list of villages was generated from Ibale ward with the help of Fisheries Officers from the
Ministry of Fisheries, and simple random sampling was used to select three villages (Lundu, Chanika and
Munsambwa) out of the 33 villages in Ibale ward. With the assistance of the village headmen from the selected
villages, lists of households with women of reproductive age (15-49 years), children (6-59 months), and men
(18-64 years) were generated. This formed the sampling frame.
Using a determined sampling interval, systematic random sampling was used to select 44 households from each
of the three villages that met the inclusion criteria from the sampling frame. The first household that met the
inclusion criteria was randomly selected and subsequent households were selected using the sampling interval.
This procedure was followed until the required number of 132 households was obtained.
Separate lists of replacement households were prepared and eligible households that declined to participate in
the study and those who were not available during the first days of interviews were replaced by households from
the replacement lists which comprised 10 households from each village.
Data collection tool and procedures
Two questionnaires were used to collect data, a semi-structured questionnaire and a food frequency questionnaire
(FFQ). The questionnaires comprised of sections on demographics and socio-economic information, 24-hour
dietary recall, frequency of consumption of animal-source foods, household members’ preference for fish with
regard to size and the preferred method of processing.
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A 24-hour dietary recall was employed to capture information on food consumption in the 24 hours preceding
the data collection exercise. A non-consecutive repeat 24-hour dietary recall was conducted among the
participants to estimate their usual dietary intake. During data collection, participants were asked about the types
of food consumed, cooking methods, and quantities of food eaten in the past 24 hours. When conducting the 24-
hour recall, quantities of food consumed were estimated by measuring food models using common household
measures, including kitchen scales, graduated measuring cups, and spoons. Furthermore, pictures with estimated
quantities from a ‘carbs and calorie counter’ book (Cheyette & Balolia, 2016) were used to estimate the quantity
of some common foods that are consumed in the region and are similar to those found in the ‘carbs and calorie
counter’ book. The quantities of the weighed foods were recorded in grams.
After administering the 24-hour dietary recall, the food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) with a 7-day recall period
adapted from FAO (FAO, 2018a) with modification, was used to capture data on frequency of consumption of
any type of fish or other animal-source foods only consumed 7 days prior to the interview at household level.
The purpose of FFQ in this study was to establish the frequency of consumption of fish and other animal-source
foods by children, women and men residing in selected households. Further, information about the size of fish
and methods of processing (fresh, sun-dried, smoked, or salted fish) of the fish consumed was also collected.
The data collection tools were translated into Bemba, a local language that is spoken in Northern Province.
The data collection exercise was conducted in October 2019. The main respondents were mothers/caregivers of
reproductive age, responsible for meal preparation within the households. They provided information on their
individual food consumption as well as that of children (6-59 months) and at the household level. Men provided
information about their individual food consumption.
Data analysis
Data were analysed using IBM Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) for Windows, version 22.0 (IBM
Corporation, Armonk, NY, USA) and Microsoft Excel 2013. Nutrisurvey 2007 version was used for nutrient
analysis.
Descriptive statistics (means and frequencies) were used to summarise and describe various sample socio-
economic and demographic characteristics, as well as to summarise data on food consumption patterns, such as
the most consumed animal-source foods, the proportion of participants who consumed fish, and the frequency
of consumption of fish and other animal-source foods.
The nutrient contents of fish and other foods consumed were estimated using Nutrisurvey 2007 software. Prior
to data entry in the software, the local fish species and other foods that were not in the Nutrisurvey food database
were added manually using the Zambian and West African food composition tables (Nyirenda et al., 2009;
Stadlmayr et al., 2012). The following information was added: names of foods (including preparation/cooking
methods), nutrients found in those foods, and their quantities.
During data entry in Nutrisurvey, the age category for each individual study participant was selected, and the
names of the foods consumed were entered along with the appropriate preparation/cooking methods and
quantities consumed. Following this, an analysis of food records for all 132 women, 132 children aged 6-59
months, and 46 men was conducted. A Microsoft Excel sheet was generated detailing the quantities of nutrients
for all foods consumed and nutrients per food item entered in the software for each participant.
To ensure accurate calculations of the contribution of fish to diets of household members, those who did not
consume fish as determined by the 24-hour dietary recall, were eliminated from the list prior to calculating the
mean intakes of fish and other foods. Thereafter, mean intakes and standard deviations were calculated using the
Microsoft Excel sheet generated for participants who consumed only fish and other foods.
The contribution of fish to diets and contribution of diets to the recommended nutrient intake (RNI) was
determined using the nutrient contribution ratio (NCR) as explained by Roos et al. (2003) with modification.
The NCR expresses the intake of a nutrient of interest from fish estimated to be consumed by the study population
in a day as a percentage of intake of that nutrient from the estimated overall diet (NCR = mean nutrient consumed
from fish / mean nutrient from diets X 100).
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Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to establish the differences in mean nutrient intake and quantities of
fish consumed among the age groups of children. An independent t–test was used to establish the differences in
mean nutrient intake and quantity of fish consumed between women and men. The normality test for continuous
variables was conducted using Kolmogorov-Smirnov (K-S) (with Lilliefors correction) for participants less than
50 (Elliott & Woodward, 2007). All statistical tests were performed at a critical value of p< 0.05.
Ethical considerations
Ethical approval was sought and obtained from the Tropical Diseases Research Centre (TDRC) Ethics
Committee (00003729). The permission to collect data in the area was obtained from the District Administrative
Officer, District Agriculture Coordinator, and village headmen. Informed consent was obtained from participants
by signing the consent forms or using thumbprints for those who could not sign. Participants were informed of
their freedom to choose whether to participate in the study or not. They were also assured that the information
provided would be treated as confidential.
RESULTS
Demographic and socio-economic characteristics of participants
The study enrolled 132 households, comprising 132 women of reproductive age, 132 children aged 6–59 months,
and 46 men who were available during the first day of interviews. The age of the main respondents
(mothers/caregivers) ranged from 16 to 45 years, with a mean age of 28.9 ± 7.6 years. Household size varied
between two and thirteen members. Other demographic and socio-economic characteristics are presented in
Table 1.
Most of the main respondents (88.6%, n = 117) were married. Overall, education levels were low, with 78.0%
(n = 103) having attained only primary education (Grades 1–7). Most respondents (79.5%, n = 105) were engaged
in informal employment such as fish mongering and shopkeeping, while others participated in seasonal or small-
scale trading activities, including the sale of agricultural products such as maize, cassava, and groundnuts from
their own production.
More than two-thirds of households (70.5%, n = 93) reported a monthly income below K250 (approximately
US$17.8), and the majority (93.0%, n = 124) spent less than K200 (approximately US$14.2) on food. Further
analysis revealed that about 69.7% (n = 92) of households spent less than K50 (approximately US$3.6) per
month on fish for home consumption.
1
132 women, (132 children) and 46 men
Table 1. Demographic and socio-economic characteristics of participants
1
Characteristic
Number of respondents (n)
Percent
2
of respondents (%)
Education level of the respondents
No formal education
11
8.3
Primary
103
78.0
Secondary
18
13.6
Occupation
Formal
2
1.5
Informal
105
79.5
Unpaid family member
25
18.9
Marital status of respondents
Married
117
88.6
Single
9
6.8
Separated
2
1.5
Divorced
4
3.0
Household Monthly Income (ZMK
3
)
Less than 250
93
70.5
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250 to 500
37
28.0
Above 500
2
1.5
Proportion of income spent on food (ZMK)
Less than 200
124
93.0
200 to 500
8
6.1
Proportion of income spent on fish in a month (ZMK)
Less than 50
92
69.7
51 to 100
10
7.6
101 to 200
3
2.3
Above 200
1
0.8
Caught by self / did not buy
26
19.7
1
132 women, (132 children) and 46 men
2
Percentage calculated as n/N x 100 and presented as %; N – Total number of households interviewed (N=132
households)
3
ZMK – Zambian currency (Kwacha); Exchange rate 1USD = ZMK14.074
Consumption patterns of fish and other animal-source foods
Consumption data of fish and other animal-source foods was captured using a 24-hour dietary recall. It was
established that 75.8% (n=100) of the households consumed fish.
The fish consumption patterns of participants were assessed for children (6–59 months), women of childbearing
age, and men based on their dietary intake within the 24 hours preceding data collection. Overall, 67.4% (n =
89) of children consumed fish during this period. Among them, a smaller proportion (13.5%, n = 12) of children
aged 6–12 months consumed fish compared to those aged 13–36 months (51.7%, n = 46) and 37–59 months
(34.8%, n = 31). Among adults, 62.9% (n = 83) of women of childbearing age and 80.0% (n = 36) of men
reported consuming fish, as illustrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1. The proportion of participants who consumed fish in 24 hours.
Values above bars indicate percentage of participants that consumed fish.
13.5
51.7
34.8
62.9
80
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
6-12 Months 13-36 Months 37-59 Months Women Men
Percent (%) of participants who consumed fish
Category of participants
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Quantity of fish consumed by household members
The quantities of fish consumed by different household members within the 24-hour reference period are
presented in Table 2. On average, older children aged 37–59 months consumed more fish (87.9 ± 45.7 g/day)
compared to younger children aged 6–12 months (60.4 ± 35.2 g/day). Children aged 13–36 months had a mean
consumption of 73.8 ± 51.0 g/day. The differences in mean fish intake among the three child age groups were
statistically significant (p = 0.001). Among adults, the mean fish intake was 162.1 ± 86.0 g/day for women and
173.3 ± 70.0 g/day for men, with no statistically significant difference observed between the two groups (p =
0.278).
Table 2. Daily fish consumption among different age categories of participants.
Mean intake of fish (g/day)
1
P-value
2
60.4 ± 35.2
0.001
73.8 ± 51.0
87.9 ± 45.7
162.1 ± 86.0
0.278
173.3 ± 70.0
1
Results are expressed as means ± standard deviation (SD) OR mean values ± standard deviation (SD)
2
p-values from analysis of variance to establish differences in mean intakes among different age groups of
children and an independent t-test to establish differences in mean intakes of men and women.
Consumption of fish and other animal-source foods
This study established that the most consumed animal-source food by participants in 24 hours was fish. A large
proportion of men (80%) consumed fish, followed by children (67.4%) and women (62.9%). Generally, the
proportion of participants who consumed eggs, meat and poultry were below 4% for all categories of participants
(Figure 2).
Figure 2. Consumption of animal-source foods 24 hours prior to the interview by children, women, and men.
Values above bars indicate percentage of participants who consumed animal source foods.
67.4
62.9
80
1.5
3.8
2.3
3.8
2.3
1.1
0.8
1.5
1.1
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Children Women Men
Percent (%) of participants consumed animal
-source
foods
Fish Meat Eggs Poultry
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Frequency of consumption of fish and other animal-source foods
Data on the frequency of consumption of fish and other animal-source foods were collected using a food
frequency questionnaire, focusing on household consumption within the seven days preceding the interview.
Fish emerged as the most frequently consumed animal-source food. All surveyed households (100%, n = 132)
reported having prepared and consumed fish during this period. Eggs were consumed by 31.0% (n = 41) of
households, while other animal-source foods included poultry (18.0%, n = 24), beef (13.6%, n = 18), wild birds
(3.8%, n = 5), and milk (0.8%, n = 1) (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Household fish consumption in relation to other animal-source foods 7 days prior to the interview.
Values above the bars indicate the percentage of households that consumed fish and other animal-source foods.
Data on fish consumption in relation to the method of processing and size showed that few households (2.3%,
n=3) consumed small-sized fish more than once per day, which was the highest frequency of consumption
reported (Table 3). The small fish consumed included Chisense (Stolothrissa miodon), Kapenta (Limnothrissa
miodon), and Kasepa (Petrocephalus sims). Regardless of this category's low frequency of consumption per day,
it had the largest proportion of households consuming fish in seven days, and this was mostly consumed as fresh.
For medium-sized fish, the highest consumption was three to four days, reported by 8.3% (n=11) households.
Some types of fish consumed included Amatuku (Tilapia spermanii), Bomba (Clarias stampersii boulenger),
Milonge (Clarias theodorae), Mintesa (Marcusenius macrolepidotus), Impende (Sargochromis giardii), and
Polwe (Serranochromis Angusticeps). while for large-sized fish, the highest frequency of consumption was three
to four days per week reported by 0.8% (n=1) households, Bomba (Clarias stampersii boulenger), Milonge
(Clarias theodorae), Impende (Sargochromis giardii), and Polwe (Serranochromis Angusticeps) were the large-
sized fish reported to be consumed.
Table 3. Frequency of fish consumption based on the size of fish and processing methods used.
Fish size
Every day more than once
Every day once a day
Three to four days
One to two days
Total
n
%
n
%
n
%
n
%
n
%
Fresh
Small fish
3
2.3
3
2.3
23
17.4
56
42.4
85
64.4
Medium
1
0.8
0
0
11
8.3
37
28.0
83
62.0
Large
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
3.8
5
3.8
Sun-dried
100
31
18
13.6
3.8
0.8
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Fish Eggs Poultry Meat Wild Birds Milk
Percent (%) of households consumed animal
-
source foods
Animal-source foods consumed
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Small fish
1
0.8
0
0
3
2.3
47
35.6
51
38.6
Medium
0
0
0
0
4
3.0
14
10.6
18
13.6
Large
0
0
0
0
1
0.8
2
1.5
3
2.3
Smoked
Small
3
2.3
4
3.0
13
9.8
16
12.1
36
27.3
Medium
0
0
0
0
2
1.5
0
0
2
1.5
n-Number of households that consumed fish; % - corresponding percentage of households that consumed fish.
While on the frequency of consumption of other animal-source foods, the current study revealed that some
households consumed these foods, such as eggs (27%, n=36) and poultry (16%, n=21), one or two days in the
week before the interview. Very few households consumed meat (1%, n=1), eggs (3%, n=4), and poultry (1%,
n=1) for three to four days within that same week. Overall, there was a low frequency of consumption of other
animal-source foods.
Contribution of fish to the diets of study participants
Data obtained from the 24-hour recall revealed that the diets of the study participants were predominantly plant-
based, with fish being the main animal-source food consumed. The food groups included roots and tubers, which
comprised cassava tubers (81%, n=106) and sweet potatoes (25.3%, n=33), as well as vegetables such as cassava
leaves (katapa) (60%, n=79), bean leaves (chimpapila) (20%, n=26), sweet potato leaves (kalembula) (24.5%,
n=32), and pumpkin leaves (chibwabwa) (37.5%, n=50). Other vegetables included rape (17.5%, n=23), Chinese
cabbage (Brassica rapa) (30%, n=40), and okra (13%, n=17). In the group of pulses, legumes, and nuts, the
consumed foods included beans (35.1%, n=46), groundnuts (38.5%, n=51), and cowpeas (10.4%, n=14). Other
groups included cereals, such as nshima from maize (43%, n=57), pumpkins (15.0%, n=20), fish (75.8%, n=100),
eggs (3.8%, n=5), and meat and poultry (meat (2.3%, n=3) and chicken (1.5%, n=2)).
The foods described constituted the overall diets of household members and were used to calculate the mean
intake of nutrients from the diets of children, women, and men (Table 4).
Table 4. Mean intake of nutrients
Y
from fish and other foods
X
among the study participants
Nutrients
Children
Adults
6-12 months
13-36 months
37-59 months
P
*
value
Women
Men
P
value
Nutrient intake from fish consumed (based on 24-hour recall)
Protein (g/day)
1
10.4 ± 5.9
(2.4-17.6)
11.6 ± 5.8
(3.2-24.0)
13.2 ± 5.9
(4.0-24.0)
0.042
30.9 ± 16.5
(4.3-67.0)
41.3 ± 25.9
(10.7-134.0)
0.028
Iron (mg/day)
1
1.0 ± 0.7
(0.1-2.2)
1.1 ± 0.9
(0.1-3.0)
1.2 ± 0.8
(0.1-3.0)
0.479
2.3 ± 1.6
(0.1-6.0)
2.8 ± 2.8
(0.3-12.0)
0.008
Calcium
(mg/day)
1
24.8 ± 18.1
(2.5-55.0)
28.0 ± 21.2
(2.5-75.0)
31.7 ± 18.8
(3.4-75.0)
0.544
56.1 ± 40.3
(3.4-150)
55.6 ± 38.1
(8.5-150.0)
0.919
Vitamin A
(µg/day)
1
4.6 ± 2.6
(1.0-7.7)
5.5 ± 3.3
(1.4-16.0)
7.0 ± 3.7
(1.8-17.7)
0.222
12.2 ± 6.9
(1.8-22.5)
14.4 ± 6.0
(4.5-27.5)
0.161
Nutrient intake from the entire diet (based on 24-hour recall)
Protein g/day
2
25.7 ± 21.1
(4.6-88.5)
25.5 ± 10.4
(1.6-55.5)
32.0 ± 21.0
(6.9-109.1)
64.7 ± 25.2 (25.7-
170.1)
80.0 ± 34.3 (27.1-207.4)
Iron mg/day
2
6.8 ± 7.6
(1.7-32.4)
6.7 ± 2.5
(0.8-12.6)
7.5 ± 3.7
(2.6-17.6)
18.1 ± 5.9 (8.6-39.0)
19.7 ± 5.6
(10.7-35.9)
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Calcium
mg/day
2
91.4 ± 45.5
(30.8-206.5)
93.4 ± 57.0
(7.45-258.0)
99.7 ± 50.0
(40.3-214.3)
293.7 ± 230.9 (75.2-
146.2)
234.9 ± 122.5 (64.9-
673.9)
Vitamin A
µg/day
2
63.2 ± 56.0
(5.1-163.9)
64.2 ± 60.0
(3.9-199.6)
63.7 ± 69.0
(4.1-254.2)
170.2 ± 212.1 (2.4-
1580.8)
139.5 ± 163
(10.7-677.8)
Results presented as means ± standard deviation (Range);
Y
grams / day;
X
Foods assessed.
1
Nutrients in fish consumed based on 24-hour recall:
2
Nutrients in the entire diet.
*
p-values from analysis of variance comparing mean intake in different age groups of children and independent
t-test comparing mean intake of nutrients from fish among women and men.
Percentage Contribution of fish to diets of study participants
The percentage contribution of fish to the overall diets consumed by children, women, and men was analysed
for proteins and selected micronutrients such as vitamin A, calcium, and iron, as these were reported to be
inadequate in the diets of households in Northern Province (Alaofe et al., 2014). Due to differences in nutrient
requirements, children aged 6-59 months were categorised into various age groups according to the WHO (World
Health Organisation & Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, 2004), and the contribution
was calculated for each age group. The contribution of fish to diets was assessed in terms of the selected nutrients.
Protein intake from fish was determined for all participant groups, revealing that among children, the mean
protein intake from fish was higher in older children than in younger ones (Table 5). Among adults, men had a
higher mean intake of protein from fish compared to women. The study observed a statistically significant
difference in intake among different groups of children (p = 0.042) and among adults (p = 0.028). Fish
contributed about 40% of the protein in the diets of children and women, while a 50% contribution was observed
among men (Table 5).
Table 5. Percentage contribution of fish to diets in relation to overall diet consumed by study participants
Nutrient
Children
6-12 Months
13-36 Months
37-59 Months
Diet
Fish
% Contr
Diet
Fish
% Contr
Diet
Fish
% Contr
Protein g/day
25.7
10.4
40.9
25.5
11.6
45.5
32.7
13.2
40.3
Iron mg/day
6.8
1.0
14.7
6.7
1.1
16.4
7.5
1.2
16.0
Calcium mg/day
91.4
24.8
27.1
93.4
28.0
30.0
99.7
31.7
31.6
Vitamin A µg/day
63.2
4.6
7.3
64.2
5.5
8.7
63.7
7.0
11.0
Adults
Women
Men
Diet
Fish
%Contr
Diet
Fish
contr
Protein g/day
64.7
30.9
47.8
80.0
41.3
51.6
Iron mg/day
18.1
2.3
12.7
19.7
2.8
14.2
Calcium mg/day
293.7
56.1
19.1
234.9
55.6
23.7
Vitamin A µg/day
170.2
12.2
7.1
139.5
14.4
10.3
1
Contr- contribution; Contribution is equal to the mean nutrient consumed from fish divided by mean nutrient
from diets multiplied by 100 (Roos et al., 2003) with modification.
Vitamin A intake increased with age among the children, with the lowest intake observed in those aged 6-12
months. Among adults, men had a higher vitamin A intake from fish than women (Table 5). Regardless of the
differences in intake, no significant difference was observed among children (p = 0.22) and among adults (p =
0.161). The contribution of fish to dietary vitamin A also increased with age among children, with the highest
contribution noted in the age group of 37-59 months. Among adults, the contribution of fish to vitamin A was
lower in women than in men.
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Calcium intake from fish was highest among children aged 37-59 months and lowest in the 6-12 month age
group, similar to the pattern observed with other nutrients. Men and women had almost the same intake of
calcium from fish (Table 5). Despite the variations in intake, the calcium intake was not significantly different
among children (p = 0.544) or between men and women (p = 0.919). Further analysis indicated that the
contribution of fish to calcium intake in children ranged from 27.1% to 31%, with the highest contribution in
those aged 37-59 months. In adults, fish contributed more calcium to men’s diets (23.7%) than to women’s diets
(19.1%) (Table 6).
Iron intake was nearly the same among children aged 6-12 months and those in the 13-36 month category. In
adults, the intake among women was lower than that among men (Table 5). There was no significant difference
in iron intake among children (p = 0.479), while a significant difference was observed between men and women
in adults (p = 0.008). The contribution of fish to dietary iron was lowest among children aged 6-12 months, while
in older children, the percentage contribution was similar. In adults, fish contributed more iron to men’s diets
than to women’s diets (Table 6).
Micronutrient contribution of diets to the Recommended Nutrient Intake (RNI) among study participants
The study further examined how the diets consumed by participants contributed to the RNI in terms of
micronutrients, specifically vitamin A, calcium, and iron. The contribution of diets to the RNI in children was
low for vitamin A and calcium; however, for iron, the dietary intake exceeded the RNI for all age groups of
children (Table 7).
Among adults, the nutrient contribution of diets to the RNI was low for calcium and vitamin A, although
variations were observed in vitamin A, with contributions exceeding 50% in women and approaching 50% in
men. The dietary contribution of iron in women was close to meeting the recommended intake, while in men, it
exceeded the RNI (Table 6).
Table 6. Mean intakes of Micronutrients and their contribution to RNI*
Nutrients
Children
6-12 Months
13-36 Months
37-59 Months
Diet
RNI
% Contr
1
Diet
RNI
% Contr
Diet
RNI
% Contr
Vitamin A µg/day
63.2
190
33.3
64.2
200
32.1
63.7
200
31.8
Calcium mg/day
91.4
400
22.9
93.4
500
18.7
99.7
600
16.6
Iron mg/day
6.8
6.2
109.7
6.7
3.9
171.8
7.5
4.2
178.5
Adults
Women
Men
Diet
RNI
% Contr
Diet
RNI
% Contr
Vitamin A µg/day
170.2
270
63.0
139.5
300
46.5
Calcium mg/day
293.7
1000
29.4
234.9
1000
23.5
Iron mg/day
18.1
19.6
92.3
19.7
9.1
216
RNI*=Recommended Nutrient Intake, % Contr
1
= Contribution to RNI, NCR = the intake of a nutrient from
diet divided FAO/WHO recommended intake multiply by 100 (Roos et al., 2003)
Limitations of this study
This study has limitations that should be acknowledged. First, the cross-sectional design provides a snapshot of
dietary patterns at a single point in time, thereby constraining the ability to establish causal relationships between
fish consumption and nutritional outcomes. Second, the study was conducted within one ward (Ibale), which
may limit the generalizability of the findings to the wider Luwingu District. Finally, the Zambian Food
Composition Tables contained insufficient data on the nutrient composition of certain locally available foods,
necessitating the use of the West African Food Composition Tables, which offer more comprehensive nutrient
information on similar foods.
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DISCUSSION
This study aimed to assess fish consumption patterns and the contribution of fish to household diets in a rural
setting in Zambia. The findings indicated that fish plays a critical role in the diets of rural households in Zambia.
This was evident from the 24-hour dietary recall and 7-day food frequency recall data. The data showed that
75.8% of households consumed fish within 24 hours prior to the interview, and all (100%) households surveyed
consumed fish at least once within the 7 days prior to the interview. Similar studies were conducted in urban
Lusaka, Zambia, Ghana, and Malawi by Marinda et al. (2018), Bandoh & Kenu (2017), and Mlauzi &
Mzengereza (2017), respectively, reported that 81%, 78%, and more than 50% of households consumed fish
within 24 hours before data collection.
The quantitative estimates of fish consumption by household members revealed that among children, the
quantities consumed increased with age. The lowest consumption was observed in children aged 6-12 months,
which may be attributed to the fact that children in this age group are not often fed fish due to concerns about
bones, which are a choking hazard compared to older children (Marinda et al., 2018). It is worth noting that most
households interviewed in the present study showed a higher frequency of consumption of small-sized fish
(which are often eaten whole, including both flesh and bones), posing a potential danger to smaller children.
Interestingly, a relationship between an increase in age with increased fish consumption was observed. This may
be because as children grow older, they become more aware of the potential dangers posed by bony fish.
Generally, children aged 6-12 months tend to consume smaller quantities of food (Gibson et al., 2010), resulting
in lower amounts of food as seen in this study. Additionally, most children in this age group are still breast-fed
and are just beginning to be introduced to newer and easier-to-digest foods. A related study conducted in
Bangladesh confirmed the trend of reduced food consumption in this age group (Thorne-Lyman et al., 2017).
This current study also revealed that men consumed more fish compared to other participants. These findings
are in line with the study conducted by Marinda et al. (2018), which revealed that men, in urban Lusaka,
consumed more fish (110.3 g/day) than women (91.4 g/day). This disparity in consumption patterns was also
observed in a study by Gomna and Rana (2007) in Nigeria, which revealed that male household heads consumed
larger quantities of fish compared to their wives and children. Gomna and Rana further explained that when a
single fish was shared, there was a tendency to apportion the fish body to the men, the tail to their wives, and the
head to the children.
The skewed fish consumption pattern towards men, compared to other household members, may be attributed
to the social structure common in African rural areas. In these settings, men are often given larger quantities of
food because they are heads of households and engage in manual labour, which requires more energy. This
practice occurs at the expense of children and women of reproductive age, who are more vulnerable to nutrient
deficiencies due to physiological changes and increased nutrient requirements. Although this was not
investigated in the present study, it may explain the proportional disparity seen among rural households in
Luwingu between men and other household members.
Children aged 24-59 months consumed more fish (49.0 g/day) than those aged 6-24 months (36.9 g/day).
However, the study by Marinda et al. (2028) reported lower quantities consumed by participants compared to
the present study, confirming that rural households consumed more fish than urban households (Hichaambwa,
2012). This could be attributed to the proximity to water bodies in Luwingu, which made fish more accessible
than in urban Lusaka.
In the current study, fish consumption was compared with other animal-source foods consumed 24 hours prior
to the interview, revealing that fish was the most consumed animal-source food among household members in
rural Luwingu. These findings are consistent with the National Nutrition Surveillance survey in Zambia
conducted by the NFNC, which established that fish was the most consumed animal-source food nationwide
(41%) in the 24 hours prior to data collection (NFNC, 2009). Another related study conducted in Indonesia by
Gibson et al. (2020) revealed that fish was the most consumed animal-source food, with approximately 90% of
women consuming fish 24 hours prior to data collection.
The study found that fresh fish was the most consumed form of fish by households, compared to processed or
preserved fish. Regarding the size of fish consumed, small-sized fish were the most frequently consumed by
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households, followed by medium-sized fish, while large-sized fish were the least consumed. In a related study
Genschick et al. (2018) found that small fish were the most consumed in Zambian urban areas.
Among the small-sized fish, the current study also revealed that most consumed small fish were fresh in contrast
to the study by Genschick et al., (2018) which established that sun-dried small fish were the most consumed in
urban Lusaka, Zambia. It is worth noting that households in Luwingu are located close to water bodies, which
allows them easier access to small fresh fish compared to households in Lusaka. However, transporting fresh
fish to urban areas requires refrigeration and reliable transport systems. As a result, it is often more profitable to
extend the shelf life of small fish through methods such as sun-drying, smoking, or other preservation techniques
before transporting them to urban centres, including Lusaka, which are far from the water bodies. Typically,
micronutrients are concentrated in bones and viscera, so the consumption of whole small fish plays a critical role
in micronutrient intake. Small fish are also affordable and can be evenly divided among household members
(Kawarazuka & Béné, 2011; Nölle et al., 2020).
This study further established the proportion of households consuming fish in relation to other animal-source
foods seven days prior to the interview. The findings revealed that fish was the most frequently consumed
animal-source food by households, followed by eggs, while meat and poultry were the least consumed. Other
animal-source foods included wild birds and milk. The seven-day frequency of consumption findings are
consistent with the 24-hour recall data, where fish was the most consumed animal-source food, followed by
eggs, and meat and poultry were the least consumed. In related studies conducted by Roos et al., (2003), Mlauzi
& Mzengereza, (2017) and Gibson et al., (2020) established that fish had the highest frequency of consumption
compared to other animal-source foods in Bangladesh, Malawi and Indonesia, respectively.
The present study also determined the intake and contribution of fish to diets in terms of selected micronutrients
(vitamin A, calcium, and iron) and proteins. Variations in micronutrient intake were observed, increasing with
age among the children. Regardless of these variations, there were no statistically significant differences in the
intake of all selected micronutrients among children based on their age categories; however, notable differences
were observed in protein intake among the children.
In adults, variations were observed between men and women. A significant statistical difference in intake was
found for proteins and iron, while no significant difference was observed for vitamin A and calcium between
men and women. Therefore, the large quantities of fish consumed by men translated into higher nutrient intakes
for proteins and iron.
Apart from the consumption of animal-source foods, especially fish, the current study also found that more
households were consuming dark green leafy vegetables, which are good sources of pro-vitamin A carotenoids
such as β-carotene. Cassava tubers were predominantly consumed and therefore provided a significant amount
of calcium and iron as these are high in cassava (Bayata, 2019). Other foods that contributed to proteins and
micronutrients included soya beans, beans, and sweet potatoes.
Considering the contribution of fish to diets, this study further revealed that fish contributed more to diets in
terms of proteins and calcium while the lowest contribution was observed in iron and vitamin A across all study
participants. Studies conducted by Bogard et al. (2015) and Roos et al. (2003) revealed that calcium, vitamin A,
and iron were much higher in fish, which serves as an important source of vitamin A and calcium. Kawarazuka
& Béné (2011) also established that fish was the major source of micronutrients and, therefore, it could contribute
significantly to diets.
Furthermore, this study established a low contribution of diets to the RNI for the selected micronutrients (vitamin
A and calcium), except for iron, which exceeded the RNI in most participants. Although iron intake exceeded
the RNI, the district has higher levels of anaemia, which may be attributed to the largest contribution of iron
from plant sources (non-heme iron), which is less bioavailable to the body compared to the heme iron found in
animal-source foods, which is well absorbed (Kawarazuka & Béné, 2010). Another reason could be that anaemia
is also caused by infectious diseases such as malaria (Ncogo et al., 2017).
The diets of the participants did not meet the recommended intake for vitamin A and calcium, similar to the
study conducted in the Northern Province of Zambia by Alaofe et al. (2014) which revealed that household diets
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in the Northern Province were deficient in vitamin A and calcium. This predisposes children and women to
nutrient deficiencies and low height for age (stunting), which has a positive relationship with fish consumption
among children aged 6-23 months (Marinda et al., 2018). On the contrary, infants may have met their
recommended nutrient intake through breast milk, which was not captured in the current study, although the iron
content in breast milk is low at the complementary food stage (Gibson et al., 2010).
CONCLUSION
This study established that fish is an important part of the diets of most households in rural communities of Ibale
ward in Luwingu district, Zambia. It is also the most consumed animal-source food compared to other animal-
source foods. Small fish species are the most consumed in this region. Fish contributes significantly to the much-
needed micronutrients and proteins from animal-source foods, especially for children aged 6-59 months and
women of reproductive age. However, its contribution to the recommended nutrient intake (RNI) is low in terms
of vitamin A and calcium. The high proportion of households consuming fish and its role in the diets of rural
communities clearly indicates its importance. Therefore, fish consumption should be actively promoted not only
as a good source of protein, but also as a rich source of vitamin A and minerals. This will enhance food security
among fish-consuming households and ultimately reduce micronutrient deficiencies in Luwingu district and
other similar rural areas.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) for funding the
Strengthening Capacity of Local Actors in Nutrition-Sensitive Agrifood Value Chains in Zambia and Malawi
Project, which enabled this research work under the collaboration between McGill University in Canada and the
University of Zambia. Special thanks go to the Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition at the
University of Zambia for their support during the research. Finally, we extend our gratitude to the Department
of Fisheries in Luwingu District, the enumerators, and the study participants in the Luwingu communities for
their support and cooperation during data collection.
DECLARATION OF INTEREST
The authors declare no competing interest regarding the publication of this manuscript. All authors have
reviewed and approved the final manuscript and affirm that there are no known conflicts of interest associated
with this publication.
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
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