INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)

ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue VIII August 2025

Page 1109

www.rsisinternational.org

Impact of Urban Density on Water Resources Management in

Informal Communities of Kabong District, Jos North Local

Government Area

Alice Bernard Benshak., Veronica Yilret Nanle

Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Plateau State Polytechnic, Barkin Ladi, Jos, Nigeria

DOI: https://doi.org/10.51244/IJRSI.2025.120800097

Received: 24 Aug 2025; Accepted: 29 Aug 2025; Published: 09 September 2025

ABSTRACT

Equitable access to safe and reliable water is a major concern in informal settlements, where high population

density, limited infrastructure, and weak governance intensify water insecurity. This study examines the water

management strategies employed by residents and the local authority in Kabong, focusing on their

effectiveness in the context of dense population and informal settlement dynamics. A mixed-method approach

was adopted for this study, with a cross-sectional survey conducted among 262 respondents. The selection of

respondents was based on the Respondent-Driven Sampling technique due to the absence of official data on

population, household listing, and the hidden nature of informal water vendors in Kabong, while purposive

sampling was used to select 6 Key Informants for the interview. Results revealed that high population density,

inadequate water infrastructure, power outages, poor management, limited income, and seasonal rainfall

variability, among other factors, hamper resilient water resource management mechanisms that address both

household and livelihood water needs in Kabong. The water infrastructure is dominated by boreholes (49.6%)

and shallow hand-dug wells (17.9%); however, 77.4% of respondents indicated that the existing infrastructure

was inadequate for community needs, with non-functional boreholes (43.1%), broken pipes (18.7%), and a

combination of other issues (24.8%) being the most reported problems. Findings also showed that the

management and maintenance of water infrastructure are fragmented, mainly handled by private entities

(40.1%) or individual residents (25.2%), with only a few communities receiving minimal government support.

Common coping strategies used by residents include reducing water use (35.9%), storing water (29.0%), and a

combination of various methods (25.2%), though only 58.4% perceive these measures as effective. The study

recommended integrated community-driven approaches supported by government interventions to improve

water accessibility, reliability, and sustainable management in Kabong.

Keywords: Density, infrastructure, equitable, management, unsafe

INTRODUCTION

Urbanisation is increasingly influencing how water is produced, distributed, and consumed globally,

particularly in rapidly growing cities of low and middle-income countries (UN-Water, 2023). As the urban

population continues to grow, the pressure on water resources becomes critical, especially in informal

settlements (Dijkstra, de Groot, & van der Meer, 2021) This situation is further intensified by the lack of

formal infrastructure and governance frameworks, making it challenging to deliver reliable and safe water

services to residents in such communities (Reddy & Sharma, 2023). For example, densely populated informal

settlements with inadequate or absent piped water networks and sewage systems can lead to over-reliance on

unsafe water sources, increasing the risk of waterborne diseases and other health-related risks (Patel & Smith,

2022). Moreover, the limited space in high-density areas prevents the implementation of traditional water

management infrastructure, such as large-scale water treatment facilities, further complicating efforts to

provide adequate water services (Lee & Kim, 2022).

The fast-growing nature and the absence of formal planning in informal settlements lead to overstraining the

water supply systems, which are unable to meet the increasing demands, making it difficult to provide reliable

and safe water (Dijkstra et al., 2021; Patel & Smith, 2022). Furthermore, the informal nature of the settlements

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)

ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue VIII August 2025

Page 1110

www.rsisinternational.org

leads to their exclusion from official urban planning and development initiatives, leaving them without the

necessary infrastructure to support effective water management, including piped water networks, sewage

systems, and stormwater drainage (Abah & Egwu, 2019). Similarly, water contamination is caused by high

urban density resulting from poor sanitation and inadequate waste disposal systems, which often lead to the

contamination of local water sources (Smit, Smith, & McLean, 2020).

Additionally, in Kabong and neighbouring informal districts, the topography and local geomorphology

(granitic outcrops, shallow regolith) further restrict reliable groundwater abstraction and increase drilling costs,

with urban density compounding the already difficult hydrogeological setting, resulting in water scarcity and

poor sanitation (Ocheri, Onugba, & Atoma, 2014). Place-based research in Jos metropolis highlights the lived

consequences, including long queuing times, high unit costs from vendors, spatial inequities tied to terrain and

location, which push households toward expensive or unsafe options (Nanle, Benshak, & Mailumo, 2023;

Bello & Oyebanji, 2020).

Despite policy emphasis on urban resilience, clean water, and sanitation (SDG 6), significant evidence gaps

remain on how urban density, informal dynamics, in addition to the topography, alter the technical, economic

and institutional pathways through which informal communities secure water (Nwachukwu, Anugwo, &

Amadi, 2020). This study, therefore, investigates how urban density shapes water resource management,

supply reliability, source status, the cost burden on households, and the institutional responses available or

missing at the community and municipal levels.

LITERATURE REVIEW

As cities continue to expand due to population growth and rural-urban migration, pressure on water systems

increases, especially in informal settlements where infrastructure is often inadequate. The high concentration

of residential, commercial, administrative, and industrial activities also amplifies the demand for water in

urban areas because densely populated areas frequently experience higher water withdrawal rates, which can

strain available resources (World Resources Institute, 2020). For example, in urban areas like Lagos and

Nairobi, the water demand has outpaced supply, leading to severe water shortages and over-reliance on unsafe

sources (WHO & UNICEF, 2021; Adeniyi, Ogunwumi, & Alabi, 2021).

The distribution of water is increasingly becoming complex in high-density areas because the water

infrastructure often fails to keep up with rapid urbanisation, resulting in unequal access to water resources

(Ademiluyi & Odugbesan, 2020). Informal communities face the greatest challenges due to the lack of

investment in water infrastructure, causing residents to resort to alternative sources, such as water vendors,

which are not only expensive and unreliable but also unsafe. For instance, a study by Da Silva, Lucas, &

Thompson (2019) on informal settlements in Nairobi, Kenya, revealed that high population density coupled

with inadequate infrastructure led to severe water shortages and increased reliance on unsafe water sources.

More findings have been reported in other densely populated informal settlements across Africa and Asia

facing water scarcity and poor water quality (Satterthwaite, Archer, Colenbrander, Dodman, Hardoy, et al.,

2020; Smit, Smit, & McLean, 2020).

Informal settlements are repeatedly excluded from official urban planning and development programs. This

exclusion from formal governance structures leaves residents to manage water and other resources on their

own, resulting in inadequate water supply systems, sewage networks, etc. Similarly, these settlements are

characterised by unregulated development and a lack of proper sanitation facilities, often leading to the

contamination of surface and groundwater resources (Ezeh, Oyebode, Satterthwaite, Chen, Ndugwa, et al.,

2022).

The situation in Kabong and most parts of Jos is similar to other informal settlements the world over. Studies

by Audu, Wazis, & Suleiman (2020) have shown that water infrastructure development lags behind the

expansion of informal settlements in Jos, leading to significant disparities in access to safe and reliable water.

The Plateau State Water Board (PSWB), responsible for the state's water supply, has, however, struggled in

keeping up with the growing demand for water in these high-density, rocky areas, particularly due to limited

financial resources and outdated infrastructure (Gyang & Akpan, 2019).

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)

ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue VIII August 2025

Page 1111

www.rsisinternational.org

Furthermore, factors such as poverty, education, and access to resources play a big role in water resources

management. Residents often lack the financial means to invest in private water solutions or proper sanitation

facilities, making them dependent on unsafe and unreliable water sources (Ezeh et al., 2020). Additionally, low

levels of education and awareness about safe water practices and hygiene contribute to the spread of

waterborne diseases (Nkuna, Madonsela, & Nzimande, 2019).

The hilly terrain and rocky landscape of Kabong limit groundwater recharge, making it difficult to access

enough water through wells and boreholes (Nwachukwu et al., 2020; Agada & Ijeoma, 2021). Furthermore,

seasonal variations such as the dry season intensify water scarcity, and the rainy season often leads to flooding,

resulting in the contamination of water sources and damaging the limited infrastructure in most cases

(Ochonma & Oghenero, 2021). Therefore, addressing the challenges of water resources management in

informal settlements requires a multi-faceted approach that includes enhancing governance, improving

infrastructure, and raising awareness about safe water practices.

The Hydrosocial Cycle Framework

This theory conceptualises water not simply as a biophysical resource but also as a socionatural construct

shaped by the interactions of ecological systems, infrastructure, governance, and social practices (Linton &

Budds, 2014). Access to safe and adequate water is produced through a complex interplay of population

density, institutional arrangements, market actors, and everyday coping strategies of households in the context

of informal communities (Popartan, 2023; Rodríguez, 2024).

The hydrosocial framework is particularly relevant to Kabong because it provides a means for addressing the

objectives of this study, where rapid urban density and informal settlement dynamics intensify the strain on

water infrastructure. It identifies and assesses water sources within physical and social domains, recognising

that boreholes, wells, and vendor systems are embedded in power relations and informal governance

arrangements. This theory also links the safety and adequacy of water to institutional maintenance and

household management practices, acknowledging that contamination and unreliability often reflect governance

gaps rather than natural scarcity (Keough, 2021). Furthermore, it highlights how population density, coping

mechanisms, and fragmented governance reshape water infrastructure and inequitable access, thereby

informing proposed interventions that integrate technical innovation with community-driven governance

(Ricart, 2023).

Thus, this framework enables this study to go beyond a technical evaluation of water infrastructure to

interrogate the socio-political processes that connect water access, safety, and equity in water management

within Kabong.

Research Aim And Objectives

This study aims to investigate the impact of urban density on water resources management in Kabong, an

informal settlement in Jos North LGA, with the following objectives;

1. To identify and assess the primary sources of water in Kabong.

2. To determine the safety and adequacy of the water sources.

3. To examine the effects of high population density on water infrastructure in the study area.

4. To evaluate the strategies employed by residents and local authorities in managing water infrastructure

and their effectiveness.

5. To propose interventions that could improve water resources management in informal settlements.

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)

ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue VIII August 2025

Page 1112

www.rsisinternational.org

METHODOLOGY

Research Design

Kabong is an unplanned settlement situated within Jos North Local Government Area of Plateau State,

predominantly inhabited by low-income earners with a diverse demographic profile (Audu et al., 2020).

Informal settlement patterns characterise Kabong and are undergoing rapid population growth, like many

urban areas in Nigeria (Gyang & Akpan, 2019). The settlement is also known for its rocky terrain and high

population density, which contribute to various urban challenges, including inadequate housing, poor

sanitation, and limited access to basic services.

This research integrates both quantitative and qualitative methods (Creswell & Plano, 2018). However, due to

the absence of an official household listing and the hidden nature of informal water vendors in Kabong,

probability-based sampling methods were not feasible. Hence, the Respondent-Driven Sampling (RDS)

approach was adopted to select 262 households for the survey. The RDS enables access to hidden populations

through peer recruitment, allowing a more systematic chain-referral process than simple snowball sampling.

The method has also been widely applied in urban informal settlements where hidden groups lack census

records (Johnston, Hakim, Dittrich, Burnett, Kim, & White, 2021).

Sampling Technique

The purposive random sampling was employed to select three (3) communities/nodal points within Kabong

(consisting of Kabong Central, Angwan Mata, and Angwan Chaweh) based on criteria such as population

density, water scarcity issues, and informal settlement dynamics, while households were randomly selected

within each stratum to ensure a fair representation and minimise sampling bias (Kumar, 2019). A total of 262

structured questionnaires were randomly administered, and semi-structured questionnaires were used for the

six Key Informant Interviews (6 KIIs), consisting of community leaders, water vendors, and officials from the

local Plateau State Water Board. The discussions were audio-recorded, transcribed and analysed. The

descriptive statistical analysis, such as frequencies and percentages, was used to summarise data using SPSS

20, and transcripts from interviews were analysed using NVivo 16.

RESULTS

The demographic profile of respondents in Kabong consists of predominantly young and active population,

aged between 30–39 years (29.8%), followed closely by 20–29 years (26.3%), which suggests a high demand

for water resources, as younger and middle-aged adults are typically engaged in activities that require regular

use of water. Additionally, the gender distribution of respondents reveals a slightly higher proportion of

females (57.3%) compared to males (42.7%), which has implications for water management, as women are

often the primary managers of household water in informal settlements, as shown in Fig. 1(i & ii).

Figure 1(I & ii). Age and Sex Distribution

Source: Author’s Research Findings, 2025

Table 1. Marital Status

Marital Status

Frequency

Percentage

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)

ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue VIII August 2025

Page 1113

www.rsisinternational.org

Single

32.1

Married

161

61.5

Divorced

2.7

Widowed

3.4

Others

Total

262

100.0

Source: Author’s Research Findings, 2025

Similarly, the majority of respondents are married (61.5%), which can intensify water demand due to larger

household sizes (Table 1), while the occupational status indicates that 39.3% of the residents are traders,

followed by civil servants (18.7%) and artisans (18.3%), indicating a mixed economic base with both formal

and informal employment. Consequently, the income levels reflect economic vulnerability, with 84.7% of

respondents earning less than ₦50,000 per month. This limited income base may restrict household capacity to

invest in water storage, purification, or alternative supply systems, making affordable, community-managed

solutions crucial (Fig. 2i and ii). The high population density, economic diversity, and limited income further

stress the need for equitable, resilient, and gender-sensitive water resource management strategies in Kabong.

Figure 2 (I & ii). Occupation and Monthly Income

Source: Author’s Research Findings, 2025

Additionally, responses from the interviews indicated that residents highly depend on multiple sources for

water supply in the area, with more than half of respondents (55.3%) relying on a combination of boreholes,

wells, public taps, stream, and water vendors to meet daily needs, see Fig. 3. While this diversification reflects

community adaptability, it also points to inadequacies in any single water source. Although results from the

KIIs revealed that boreholes are the most common standalone infrastructure, frequent power outages,

occasional borehole failures (43.1%), and frequent infrastructure failures (78.5%) show significant

maintenance and reliability problems (Table 2).

Safe and adequate water supply is a matter of concern, with only 11.5% of respondents rating their main

source as “very reliable/adequate,” and 64.9% have observed contaminations in the commonly unpleasant

taste, smell, colouration, or a combination of more than one factor, as shown in Figs. 3, 4 and Tables 2 & 3.

Despite these risks, 55% of the households do not treat water before consumption, and 39.7% report

experiencing health challenges such as typhoid, cholera, and diarrhoea. Quality perceptions skew towards the

moderate range, with 42.7% rating water as “good” and 18.7% describing it as “poor.”

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)

ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue VIII August 2025

Page 1114

www.rsisinternational.org

Figure 3: Water Sources

Source: Author’s Research Findings, 202.

Table 2. Reliability/Adequacy of Water Sources

Reliability/Adequacy

Frequency

Percent

Very reliable/adequate

11.5

Moderately reliable/adequate

115

43.9

Rarely reliable/adequate

Reliable but not adequate

Adequate but not reliable

1.1

Not reliable/not adequate

9.5

Total

262

100

Source: Author’s Research Findings, 2025

Figure 4(i & ii). Type of Water Contamination and Methods of Treatment:

Source: Author’s Research Findings, 2025

Table 3. Water Quality Health Risks

Health-Risks

Frequency

Percent

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)

ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue VIII August 2025

Page 1115

www.rsisinternational.org

Typhoid

100

38.2

Cholera/Diarrhoea

1.5

All

17.9

None

111

42.4

Total

262

100

Source: Author’s Research Findings, 2025

High population density, reflected in large household sizes (39.3%) with 7–9 members and 18.3% with 10 or

more, see Table 4, exacerbates pressure on the already strained infrastructure, resulting in the high cost of

water ranging from N60 – N100 per 20 liters jerrican depending on the distance from the water source,

demand and season of the year. Most residents adopt strategies like reduced consumption (35.9%), storage

(29%), and water reuse (4.2%) to cope with water scarcity. However, these strategies are only moderately

effective, with just 23.3% describing them as “very effective.”

Table 4. Household Size

Household Size

Frequency

Percent

1-3

4-6

21.4

7-9

103

39.3

10 and above

18.3

Total

262

100

Source: Author’s Research Findings, 2025

Boreholes are the predominant water infrastructure in Kabong (49.6%), followed by shallow hand-dug wells

(17.9%) and mixed systems (27.9%), Table 4 & 5. However, 77.4% of respondents reported that the existing

infrastructure is highly inadequate for a community with such a high population.

Table 5. Water Infrastructures

Adequacy

Frequency

Percent

Yes

22.5

202

77.1

Total

261

99.6

Missing

Total

262

100.0

Source: Author’s Research Findings, 2025

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)

ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue VIII August 2025

Page 1116

www.rsisinternational.org

Infrastructure failure is a significant challenge, and its management is largely undertaken by private entities

(40.1%) and individual residents (25.2%), with government involvement reported by only 11.1% of

respondents. The physical condition of the infrastructure is rated as poor (22.9%) or abysmal (25.2%), as

shown in Tables 6 &7.

Table 6. Infrastructure Failure/Damage

Type of Breakdown

Frequency

Percent

Broken pipes

18.7

Rusted and blocked pipes

10.3

Non-functional boreholes

113

43.1

A combination of the above

24.8

None

3.1

Total

262

100.0

Source: Author’s Research Findings, 2025

Table 7. State of Water Infrastructure

State of Infrastructure

Frequency

Percent

Very Good

5.3

Good

22.9

Fair

23.7

Poor

22.9

Very poor

25.2

Total

262

100.0

Source: Author’s Research Findings, 2025

Respondents suggested that the government construct more water sources (45.4%) by drilling additional solar-

powered boreholes (34.0%) due to the unstable power supply in the area, to improve access to safe water.

Overall, while local strategies exist, the high rates of infrastructure inadequacy and failure indicate a pressing

need for coordinated investment, improved maintenance, and stronger government involvement to ensure

sustainable water access.

Table 8. Managers of Water Infrastructures

Owners/Managers

Frequency

Percent

Government

11.1

Private

105

40.1

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)

ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue VIII August 2025

Page 1117

www.rsisinternational.org

Individual residents

25.2

CBOs

17.2

Combination

6.5

Total

262

100.0

Source: Author’s Research Findings, 2025

Figure 5. Improvement of Water Access:

Source: Author’s Research Findings, 2025

CONCLUSION

Kabong residents employ various adaptive measures, including water storage and reduced consumption, to

manage water scarcity, although perceived as inefficient in addressing the challenges in water provision.

However, inadequate water infrastructure, unstable power supply, and persistent infrastructure failures

significantly heighten the vulnerability of the community’s water supply system, leading to unequal access.

These local findings align with broader patterns in Nigerian informal settlements, where residents bear

disproportionate responsibilities for securing water amid institutional neglect (Nchor & Ukam, 2024; IWSA,

2023).

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Engage the Plateau State Water Board and local governments in rehabilitating and expanding water

infrastructure in Kabong to shift from reliance on private/resident-led management to institutional

support.

2. Prioritise repair and maintenance of non-functional boreholes and replacement of broken or rusted

pipelines to ensure a consistent supply.

3. Promote collaborative management between government agencies, private operators, and community-

based organisations to ensure sustainability and equitable access.

4. Address electricity shortages affecting borehole pumping to enhance water supply reliability.

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)

ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue VIII August 2025

Page 1118

www.rsisinternational.org

REFERENCES

1. Abah, R. C., & Egwu, S. O. (2019). Challenges of urban water supply in Nigeria: A case studyof Jos,

Plateau State. Journal of Environmental Management and Safety, 10(1), 87 101. https://doi.org/10.5897/

JEMS2019.0310

2. Ademiluyi, I. A., & Odugbesan, J. A. (2020). Challenges of urban water supply in Sub-Saharan Africa:

A case study approach. Journal of Urban Studies, 34(2), 123–135.

3. Adeniyi, O., Ogunwumi, O., & Alabi, T. (2021). Water quality and access in Makoko, Lagos:

Addressing the challenges of urban water management in informal settlements. Water International,

46(4), 533 - 547. https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2021.1935814

4. Agada, P. O., & Ijeoma, O. (2021). Water scarcity and urban resilience in Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria.

Water Resources Management, 35(5), 1587-1602. ttps://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-021-02823-y among

the Residents of Informal Settlement in Jos Metropolis, Nigeria. Afropolitan Journals, 11(1),67–81.

5. Audu, M. D., Wazis, H. C., & Suleiman, I. (2020). Water quality assessment and health risks in

Angwan Rukuba, Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 192(3), 156.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-020-08153-2

6. Bello, A. R., & Oyebanji, O. A. (2020). Spatial inequalities in access to potable water supply in Jos,

Nigeria. Journal of Geography and Regional Planning, 13(3), 41–51.

https://doi.org/10.5897/JGRP2019.0774

7. Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2018). Designing and Conducting Mixed Methods Research (3

ed.). SAGE Publications.

8. Da Silva, J., Lucas, K., & Thompson, M. (2019). The challenges of water management in informal

settlements: A case study of Nairobi, Kenya. Water Policy, 21(1), 45-60.

https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2018.192

9. Dijkstra, L., de Groot, W., & van der Meer, J. (2021). Urban density and water resource management in

informal settlements. Urban Studies Research, 2021, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8803294

10. Ezeh, A., Oyebode, O., Satterthwaite, D., Chen, Y.-F., Ndugwa, R., Sartori, J., ... & Lilford, R. J.

(2020). The history, geography, and sociology of slums and the health problems of people who live in

slums. The Lancet, 389(10068), 547-558. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140 6736(16)31650-6

11. Ezeh, C., Adebayo, S., & Madu, E. (2022). Impacts of informal settlements on water quality in African

cities: A review. Environmental Research, 15(6), 231–245.

12. Gyang, J. D., & Akpan, E. A. (2019). The impact of urbanisation on water resources in Jos, Plateau

State, Nigeria. Urban Water Journal, 16(4), 267-275. https://doi.org/10.108

13. IWSA. (2023). Water infrastructure sustainability in Nigeria: A systematic review. Water Supply,

25(11).

14. Johnston, L. G., Hakim, A. J., Dittrich, S., Burnett, J., Kim, E., & White, R. G. (2021). Emerging

Approaches to sampling hidden populations in public health research: A scoping review. Public

Health, 191, 149–156.

15. Keough, S. B. (2021). Water delivery and the creation of hydrosocial routes: House-to-house water

delivery in Niamey, Niger. Journal of Hydrology, [volume], [pages].

16. Kumar, R. (2019). Research Methodology: A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners (5th ed.).

SAGEPublications.

17. Lee, J., & Kim, H. (2022). Technological innovations for water management in informal communities:

A review. Water Research, 201, 117-129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2021.117415

18. Linton, J., & Budds, J. (2014). The hydrosocial cycle: Defining and mobilising a relational–dialectical

approach to water. Geoforum, 57, 170–180.

19. Nanle, V. Y., Benshak, A. B., & Mailumo, A. S. (2023). Exploring the State of Municipal Water Supply

Infrastructure: Towards a Sustainable Water Provision in Informal Settlements of Jos Metropolis,

Nigeria. Afropolitan Journals, 14(2), 110–123.

20. Nchor, J. U., & Ukam, L. E. (2024). Decreasing access to water and coping strategies for shortage in

the informal settlements of Calabar, Nigeria. Sustainability, 16(11), 4603.

https://doi.org/10.3390/su16114603

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)

ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue VIII August 2025

Page 1119

www.rsisinternational.org

21. Nkuna, Z., Madonsela, B., & Nzimande, N. (2019). Community engagement in informal settlements:

A case study of Durban, South Africa. Journal of Urban Affairs, 41(6), 744- 763.

https://doi.org/10.1080/07352166.2018.1470913

22. Nwachukwu, C. M., Anugwo, M. N., & Amadi, A. N. (2020). Water supply challenges in peri-urban

settlements of Nigeria: Case study of Jos metropolis. International Journal of Environmental Studies,

77(2), 312–327. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207233.2019.1687029

23. Ocheri, M., Onugba, A., & Atoma, C. N. (2014). Hydrogeological and geotechnical characteristics of

Jos Plateau and implications for groundwater development. Journal of Geology and Mining Research,

6(3), 51–60. https://doi.org/10.5897/JGMR2013.0192

24. Ochonma, L. O., & Oghenero, D. E. (2021). Health impacts of waterborne diseases in informal

settlements in Jos, Nigeria. Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, 11(2), 199-

207. https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2021.190

25. Patel, R., & Smith, A. (2022). Challenges and solutions for water management in informal urban

settlements. Journal of Urban Planning and Development, 148(3), 04022014.

https://doi.org/10.1061/JUPDDM.0000657

26. Popartan, L. A. (2023). The urban hydrosocial cycle: Why should engineers care? Open Research

Europe, 3(23), 1–15.

27. Reddy, B., & Sharma, P. (2023). Infrastructure development for water management in high-density

informal communities. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 39(1), 58-73.

https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2023.2048376

28. Ricart, S. (2023). Reinforcing the hydrosocial cycle to foster water governance: A perspective.

Frontiers in Agronomy, 5, 1146262.

29. Rodríguez, C. (2024). The hydrosocial cycle and inequalities in access to urban water: A case from

Santiago.Water, 16(19), 2811.

30. Satterthwaite, D., Archer, D., Colenbrander, S., Dodman, D., Hardoy, J., Mitlin, D., & Patel Smit, B.,

Smit, B., & McLean, R. (2020). Water contamination and health risks in informal urban settlements:

A global perspective. Environmental Research Letters, 15(7), 074021. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-

9326/ab9d5b

31. Smit, B., Smit, B., & McLean, R. (2020). Water contamination and health risks in informal urban

settlements: A global perspective. Environmental Research Letters, 15(7), 074021. https://doi.org/

10.1088/ 1748-9326/ab9d5b

32. UN-Water. (2023). SDG 6 synthesis report on water and sanitation 2023: A global blueprint for

acceleration. UN-Water. https://www.unwater.org/publications/sdg-6-synthesis-report 2023

33. WHO & UNICEF. (2021). Progress on drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene in urban areas: 2021

update. Geneva: World Health Organisation.

34. World Resources Institute. (2020). The state of urban water security in developing nations. Urban

Water Review, 20(1), 12–29.