INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue VIII August 2025
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Breathing Spaces: Environmental & User Experience in Dhanmondi and
Zigatola Multistoried Apartments, Dhaka, Bangladesh
Kowshik Ahmed*
Lecturer Department of Architecture, Southeast University, Bangladesh
DOI: https://doi.org/10.51244/IJRSI.2025.120800116
Received: 07 Aug 2025; Accepted: 13 Aug 2025; Published: 12 September 2025
ABSTRACT
Dhaka’s vertical housing boom has transformed everyday living, often at the expense of comfort and
environmental quality. This study compares multistoried apartments in Dhanmondi’s planned urban fabric
with those in Zigatola’s denser, organically developed context to understand how building orientation, height,
and breathing spaces shape both indoor environments and resident well-being. Six units across varying floor
levels and cardinal directions were examined through on-site temperature, humidity, and daylight
measurements alongside resident surveys. Results reveal that open surroundings and generous inter-building
spaces improve airflow, stabilize humidity, enhance daylight access, and lower cooling dependency conditions
strongly reflected in residents’ comfort perceptions. In contrast, units with little or no openness suffer heat
buildup, dampness, and higher utility costs, reinforcing discomfort. The findings highlight that breathing
spaces are not mere visual reliefs but essential microclimatic regulators, directly influencing health,
satisfaction, and energy efficiency in Dhaka’s high-density apartments.
“Keywords”: Multistoried apartments, Breathing spaces, Thermal comfort, Urban microclimate, User
perception.
Dhaka’s built environment has undergone a dramatic vertical transformation over the past three decades,
reshaping not only its urban skyline but also its microclimatic conditions. Among its diverse neighborhoods,
Dhanmondi a historically planned residential area presents a relatively organized urban morphology, while
Zigatola, its immediate neighbor, embodies denser, organically evolved settlement patterns. Both now host
clusters of multistoried apartment buildings where concerns over thermal comfort and indoor livability are
intensifying.
In tropical megacities, indoor thermal comfort is influenced by a complex interaction of temperature, humidity,
air movement, and solar radiation, moderated by residents’ cultural and behavioral adaptations
(Koenigsberger, Ingersoll, Mayhew, & Szokolay, 1975; Fergus Nicol, 2012). In Dhaka, dense urban
development and a lack of green spaces have exacerbated the urban heat island effect, resulting in increased
indoor heat and discomfort in residential areas (Tariq & Poerschke; Khatun, Khatun, & Hossen, 2020; Rahman
& Islam, 2024; Tabassum, Park, Seo, Han, & Baik, 2024). Building morphology, orientation, and the presence
of breathing spaces—the open voids between structures play a critical role in determining airflow, daylight
penetration, and heat dissipation (Oke, 1988; Emmanuel, 2005; Ng, 2009).
Residents’ comfort perception, however, extends beyond physical metrics. It integrates psychological and
social dimensions (Altman, 1975) where visual openness, daylight, and ventilation contribute to well-being
(Woo, et al., 2021). In Dhaka, contrasting approaches to urban development and plot layouts across planned
and organically grown neighbourhoods provide a meaningful basis for comparative analysis in urban studies
(Ahmed, Hasan, & Maniruzzaman, 2014) (Islam, 2019).
This study focuses on three apartment buildings in Dhanmondi and one in Zigatola, surveying two units in
each to integrate quantitative environmental monitoring with qualitative user feedback. The aim is to
investigate how localized differences in spatial context affect both thermal performance and perceived
comfort—laying the groundwork for further research into the role of breathing spaces in Dhaka’s vertical
housing.
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
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LITERATURE REVIEW
Thermal Comfort in Tropical Urban Housing
Thermal comfort in tropical housing is a function of both climatic variables and adaptive behaviors. The
adaptive comfort model (de Dear & Brager, 1998) emphasizes residents’ ability to adapt through clothing,
behavior, and environmental control. However, in dense tropical cities, limited cross-ventilation and heat
retention can constrain adaptation (Frontczak & Wargocki, 2011). Urban heat island effects, now well-
documented in Dhaka, further intensify cooling demands (Rabbani, Rahman, & Islam, 2011)
Indoor Microclimate and Building Morphology
Urban form and building configuration significantly influence indoor microclimates. Studies in Asian
megacities confirm that plot setbacks, building height ratios, and orientation affect heat gain, airflow, and
daylight (Oke, 1988; Prianto & Depecker, 2003; Emmanuel & Steemers, 2018). In Dhaka, compact and tightly
arranged residential layouts where open, breathable spaces are limited tend to diminish natural ventilation and
exacerbate indoor heat, thereby compromising thermal comfort (Sinthia, 2024).
User Perception and Social Dimensions of Comfort
Comfort perception merges measurable parameters with subjective experience. Psychological factors such as
visual access to the outdoors, perceived privacy, and connection to open spaces influence residents’ well-being
(Altman, 1975). In tropical climates, residents often perceive thermal comfort not just based on temperature
but through adaptive behaviors like improving airflow, showing that comfort is shaped by both environment
and lived experience (Gou, Gamage, Lau, & Lau, 2018).
Dhaka’s Vertical Housing Context
The Bangladesh National Building Code (BNBC, 2020) outlines structural and safety guidelines for high-rise
residential construction, but practical enforcement varies between neighborhoods. In Dhaka, the clear layouts
of planned neighborhoods differ greatly from the narrow, irregular streets of organic areas, affecting airflow
and outdoor comfort highlighting how urban design impacts the environment people experience.
METHODOLOGY
A comparative case study with a mixed-methods approach was adopted to analyze variations in thermal
comfort and user experience between two zones, Dhanmondi and Zigatola. Three multistoried residential
buildings (two in the Dhanmondi zone and one in the Zigatola zone) were selected to represent different
heights, orientations, and inter-building spacing patterns. Six units across vertical levels (low, mid, top) and
cardinal orientations were surveyed. To ensure reliable responses, only apartments where residents had lived
for at least one year and no longer than five years were included, allowing them to experience a full annual
cycle without becoming desensitized to long-term discomfort.
Figure 1: Analysis Methodology Diagram
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The study focused on a diverse range of Dhaka’s residential settings, selecting only fully residential
multistoried apartments to maintain consistency. Variation in construction period, materials, greenery, open
space, and urban activity was considered to capture the city’s complex microclimatic conditions. Indoor
temperature and humidity were measured at different times of day using calibrated thermo-hygrometers, while
illumination levels were assessed with lux meters and verified through 3D daylight simulations. User surveys
documented perceptions of thermal comfort, airflow, seasonal changes, and psychological well-being. This
mixed-methods approach allowed a holistic understanding of thermal comfort by combining quantitative
environmental data with qualitative lived experiences (
Figure 1).
DATA PROCESSING AND ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK
Building Inspection Process
For this comparative study, three multistoried residential buildings were purposefully selected to represent
contrasting urban conditions two located within the planned Dhanmondi zone and one situated in the more
organically developed Zigatola zone. Within these buildings, six individual apartment units were examined,
strategically chosen to capture a variety of vertical positions (low, mid, and top floors) and cardinal
orientations (east, west, north-west, and south-east). This selection ensured that both environmental variations
and lived experiences could be assessed across differing heights, sun exposures, and surrounding spatial
contexts, thereby allowing a nuanced understanding of how location within a building and neighborhood
morphology influence indoor comfort and user perception.(Table 1).
Table 1:Selected Buildings and Unit Details
SI.
No.
Project
Address
Location
Height (Floor
Numbers)
Total
Units
Surveyed
Units
Build
Year
01
6 Storied
Residential
Building
H-101, Dhaka-1209
Dhanmondi-
Zigatola
06
12
02
1974
02
Shahana Vaban
67/2 /Ka, Zigatola.
Dhanmondi Dhaka-
1209
07
12
02
1994
03
Urban Shouthern
Heights
H-30, R-14/A,
Dhanmondi
13
55
02
2017
Total number of surveyed buildings
3
Total number of surveyed units
5
To streamline the identification of buildings and their respective living units, a coding system was adopted.
i. Buildings: Each project was assigned an alphabetical code, with the selected buildings labeled from A
to C.
ii. Living Units: Units were coded based on both their vertical and cardinal positions.
Table 2:Vertical Location of The Units Coding & Unit Cardinal Location (CL) Coding
Unit Vertical
Location
Category
Legend
Unit Cardinal
Location (CL)
Legend
Top
Below Roof
Top
East
E
Middle
Below Top to Upper second floor
Mid
South
S
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Lower
Up to the second floor
Low
West
W
North
N
Unit Vertical Location
Numbering
Ground
GF
South-East
SE
First
1
South-West
SW
Second
2
North-West
NW
Eighteenth
18
North-East
NE
Vertical location was noted in two ways: by exact floor number (e.g., 1, 2, 3, with the ground floor marked as
GF) and by a broader category of “Top,” “Mid,” or “Low” Cardinal orientation was indicated using the first
letter of each direction, such as E for East or N for North, following the same format for other positions (Table
2). This system ensured a clear and consistent reference for all surveyed projects and units.
Following this coding process, a unit was named “C12NW,” which represents the unit from building “C” on
the 12th floor in the “northwest” Cardinal direction (Appendix 1)
Environmental Data Collection & User Experience Surveys
Temperature, humidity, and illumination levels were measured in primary living spaces using
calibrated thermo-hygrometers [HTC-2 (AD-01)] and lux meters. Digital 3D daylight simulations,
though.“Shadedat (Beta)”, a plugin of “Sketchup” 3d modeling software, validated annual natural light
distribution patterns (
Appendix 2). Data collection spanned different times of day to capture diurnal variations.
Six living units with varying vertical levels and cardinal orientations were examined, with each internal space
positioned differently based on its location within the building. For each unit, temperature and humidity were
measured to capture both outdoor conditions and the indoor living environment.
i. Outdoor data: Readings at different heights and orientations helped assess how sunlight, wind, and
surrounding structures influenced external conditions.
ii. Indoor data: Key spaces such as bedrooms, family living areas, and dining rooms were monitored,
with their orientations noted to understand how placement within the building impacted thermal
comfort.
By linking outdoor environmental variations with indoor conditions, this method offered a thorough
understanding of the thermal behavior of the units and their responsiveness to orientation and spatial
configuration. Structured questionnaires captured residents’ views on thermal comfort, airflow, and seasonal
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changes, along with how these factors affected their daily life and overall well-being (
Appendix 3). Comparing responses from the two residential zones revealed clear spatial and climatic contrasts,
showing how differences in building design and environmental context shaped residents’ comfort levels and
psychological experiences.
Statistics Analysis
Inter-Space Temperature Variation (ISTV) and Inter-Space Humidity Variation (ISHV) were calculated for
each unit. Comparative analysis correlated these with building spacing, orientation, and user feedback to
highlight zone-specific patterns. For authenticity and accuracy, firstly, the indoor-outdoor temperature and
humidity of the individual projects are identified using the thermo-hygrometer, which is verified in two simple
ways:
i. One-hour focused Investigation: A monitoring device was positioned on the third floor of a six-story
building in Zigatola, Dhaka, to evaluate its performance. Temperature and humidity were tracked at
short, regular intervals over an hour to examine how accurately the instrument responded to rapid
environmental fluctuations (Figure 2).
ii. Ten- and Fourteen-hour Investigation: To capture daily climatic fluctuations under typical
Bangladeshi conditions, temperature and humidity were monitored over longer and shorter daylight
periods, with readings taken every thirty minutes to track gradual changes (Figure 2).
All measurements were taken in an enclosed setting. The device was moved between points, and readings were
recorded after brief stabilization to ensure accuracy.
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Figure 2: Hourly Humidity and Temperature & Inspection Summary
Individual Project Details
Three residential projects located across the Dhanmondi-Zigatola zone were examined, with each building
documented along with its immediate surroundings and the investigated units.
Building A (H-101)
A six-story structure in Zigatola with two units per floor, oriented south and divided into east and west
sides. It is bordered by a three-story building to the south and a five-story building to the east, with open
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spaces to the north and west. Units “A3W” and “A2E” were studied (
Figure 3).
Building B (Shahana Vaban)
A seven-story building in near Zigatola, Dhanmondi, surrounded by six- and five-story structures. The
lower levels are enclosed by adjacent buildings, while limited open space exists at the upper levels. Two units
per floor are arranged east and west. Units “B5W” and “B3E” were investigated (
Figure 3).
Building C (Urban Southern Heights)
A thirteen-story building opposite Bangladesh Medical College Hospital in Dhanmondi, with five units
per floor. The north-facing entrance opens to a 50-foot-wide road, while other sides have open breathing
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spaces. Community and emergency facilities are included. Units “C12NW” and “C3SE” were examined (
Figure 4). This selection included a variety of building heights, orientations, and spatial contexts across the
two residential zones.
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
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Figure 3: Building A & B with Surveyed Units
Figure 4: Building C with Surveyed Units
DISCUSSION AND VERDICTS
As there were six different units in three individual projects investigated, all the vertical and cardinal
locations of the projects were observed. In this investigation, most of the units (04) of the project were
vertically located in the “Mid” section, and most of the units were in the East (2) and West (2) parts in cardinal
direction. Others in the North-West (1) and South-East (1) (
Figure 5).
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Climatic Data Comparison
All living spaces within each unit were thoroughly examined to analyze room-by-room temperature
and humidity. The investigation was carried out in two phases. In the first phase, data from each room were
collected and recorded, followed by identifying the maximum and minimum temperatures within each unit to
determine the hottest and coolest spaces. This process, termed Inter-Space Temperature Variation (ISTV),
categorized temperature differences as “Considerable” (0.5–0.8°C), “Negligible” (0.1–0.2°C), and “Average”
for values in between (
Figure 6). The second phase focused on mapping the vertical and cardinal positions of these hottest and coolest
rooms to better understand how spatial orientation influences indoor thermal conditions.
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Figure 5: Unit Locations (Vertical and Cardinal)
Figure 6:Temperature & Humidity Variation Data
Following this system among six (06) units, two (02) units were found as “Considerable”, among
which most are located in the West and North-West in cardinal direction. Among these, one is at “Mid” and
the other is at “Top” in the vertical direction. From the other units, two (03) are in the “Mid”, in which two
(02) are under “Average”, and the rest of two (02) are in both “Mid” and “Low” in vertical under the
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“Negligible” category (
Figure 6). Similarly, humidity data were analyzed through a process termed Inter-Space Humidity
Variation (ISHV). Variations between rooms were classified as “High” for differences of 3% or more, “Low”
for differences of 1%, and “Mid” for values in between. This helped identify how humidity levels shifted
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across different spaces within each unit (
Figure 6).Following this system among six (06) units, two (02) units were found with high humidity spaces,
which were located at the middle (01) and lower (01) parts of the buildings, where cardinal location does not
matter, but the vertical location impacts. Others are in moderate condition.
User and Enumerators’ Data Collaboration
From the opinion of the user of individual units, an annual experience data chart was prepared. A
summary of their responses regarding the climatic situation of their living spaces represents the condition of
their living state. It is observed that among six (06) living units, four (04) unit users are getting satisfactory
airflow throughout the year, and they observe more comfort than other users. Along with these, most of the
users used to feel warm in “May” with the moderate experience in “Summer” (
Figure 7). Most users who feel comfortable or live in a moderate situation are living in units where they have
satisfactory open spaces around the building, which enhance proper ventilation of the unit. In some cases,
partial spaces or urban windows also allow a comfortable situation in lower-level living units. Following these
responses and enumerators collected data analysis summary, it is also observed of having most of the “Coolest
room” is at the “North” or “Central” cardinal location of the units, and “Warmest room” at the “West” or
related to the west in the cardinal location. This result is similar to the response from the individual users.
Additionally, among the six (06) units, users of four (04) units find their living environment healthy, and it is
found that those units contain open spaces surrounding them. Unit with partially open surroundings is in a
compromised living situation, and the rest found it unhealthy with no open surroundings.
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Figure 7:Annual Climatic and Unit Internal Living Experiences
Real-Time Illumination Analysis
After analyzing residents’ perceptions of their living conditions, annual natural light distribution
patterns were simulated using Shadedat (Beta), a plugin for SketchUp 3D modeling software. The simulation,
conducted at three-month intervals, identified consistently illuminated spaces and surfaces throughout the year.
These results closely aligned with residents’ feedback, confirming the correlation between user-reported
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Figure 8: Real-Time Illumination Analysis
Supportive Physical State
Based on the final stage of analysis, a comparative assessment was conducted to explore the relationship
between the availability of open space around the surveyed units and their physical conditions specifically
focusing on dampness, wall stains, and utility costs. The findings revealed a clear trend: units surrounded by
adequate open space consistently showed lower utility costs, including electricity and water consumption. This
suggests more efficient natural ventilation and daylight access, reducing the need for artificial cooling and
lighting. These units provided a more comfortable and cost-effective living environment.
Two of the surveyed units exhibited moderate utility costs. One of these was surrounded by open space, while
the other had only partial openness, indicating that even limited exposure to open surroundings can have a
moderately positive effect. However, the unit with no surrounding open space recorded the highest utility
costs, pointing to poor ventilation and lighting conditions that likely contributed to a greater reliance on
mechanical systems ultimately reducing the quality of living.
In addition, physical deterioration in the form of wall stains and dampness was observed in the units
with either partial or no surrounding openness. Conversely, all four units with ample open space were free
from such issues. This further emphasizes the importance of spatial openness not just for thermal and visual
comfort, but also for maintaining healthier, more durable indoor environments. Together, these observations
underscore the critical role of building orientation, spacing, and environmental context in shaping both the
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Figure 9: Sample's Physical State Analysis
Comparative Environmental Findings
The environmental assessment identified significant differences in thermal comfort and daylight exposure
between the two neighborhoods. Units in Dhanmondi generally exhibited better natural ventilation and
daylight penetration due to wider inter-building spacing and more favorable orientations, whereas Zigatola
units faced challenges related to limited openness and increased heat retention. Temperature variation patterns
also correlated strongly with cardinal directions and floor levels, impacting residents’ comfort and energy use.
Comparative User Perception Patterns
Survey data revealed that residents in Dhanmondi reported higher overall satisfaction with their indoor
environment, citing better air flow and natural light as key factors. In contrast, Zigatola occupants frequently
expressed concerns over dampness, wall stains, and limited ventilation, which negatively affected their
comfort and utility costs. The perception of environmental quality closely matched the measured physical
parameters, illustrating how design deficiencies translate into lived experiences.
CONCLUSION
This comparative study reaffirms that the environmental quality and overall user satisfaction in Dhaka’s
multistoried residential buildings are deeply shaped by site-specific variables particularly the availability of
open space, building orientation, and spacing between structures. Units with greater openness consistently
demonstrated lower utility costs, better ventilation, and fewer physical issues such as wall stains and
dampness. In contrast, those with limited or no surrounding open space experienced higher environmental
stress and maintenance concerns, indicating a compromised living experience.
These findings emphasize the need for urban housing strategies that move beyond mere density maximization.
Thoughtful integration of open spaces, solar orientation, and inter-building setbacks can significantly enhance
microclimatic conditions and support healthier, more resilient living environments. As Dhaka continues to
grow vertically, future housing policies and architectural practices must prioritize environmental
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responsiveness not only to ensure comfort and habitability but also to promote long-term well-being and
sustainability for its urban population.
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue VII July 2025
APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Project Unit Coding System
Appendix 2: Lux meters, Thermo-hygrometer, Real-time Illumination Analysis & Cardinal Location of Spaces
Appendix 3: Sample Data Collecting Format & User’s Living Condition Statement Sample
