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Advances in Solar Cell Technologies: A Comprehensive Review of
Material Synthesis, Structural Properties, Efficiency and Diverse
Applications
Rohit Srivastava*& Chandresh Kumar Gupta
Nanomaterial and Metal Chalcogenide Research Lab*
Department of Chemistry St. Andrew’s College, Gorakhpur, UP, India
DOI: https://doi.org/10.51244/IJRSI.2025.120800164
Received: 07 Aug 2025; Accepted: 12 Aug 2025; Published: 16 September 2025
ABSTRACT
Solar cells represent one of the most promising renewable energy technologies for addressing global energy
demands and climate change challenges. This paper provides a comprehensive review of photovoltaic
technology, examining the fundamental principles underlying solar cell operation, various cell types and their
efficiencies, key material properties, synthesis methods, and emerging applications. Current commercial
silicon-based technologies achieve efficiencies of 20-26%, while emerging perovskite and multi-junction cells
demonstrate potential for efficiencies exceeding 40%. Manufacturing techniques continue to evolve, with thin-
film deposition and advanced processing methods reducing costs while improving performance. Future
applications range from building-integrated photovoltaic to space-based solar power systems, positioning solar
technology as a cornerstone of sustainable energy infrastructure.
Keywords: photovoltaic, solar cells, semiconductor devices, renewable energy, efficiency, perovskite, silicon
INTRODUCTION
The photovoltaic effect, first observed by Alexandre Edmond Becquerel in 1839, forms the foundation of
modern solar cell technology. Solar cells convert solar radiation directly into electrical energy through the
excitation of charge carriers in semiconductor materials. As global energy consumption continues to rise and
environmental concerns intensify, photovoltaic technology has emerged as a critical component of renewable
energy strategies worldwide. The fundamental operation of solar cells relies on the creation of electron-hole
pairs when photons with sufficient energy strike semiconductor materials. These charge carriers are separated
by built-in electric fields at p-n junctions, generating photocurrent that can power external circuits. The
efficiency of this conversion process depends on numerous factors including material properties, device
architecture, and operating conditions. The paper examines the current state of solar cell technology, analyzing
efficiency trends, material properties, synthesis methods, and future applications that promise to revolutionize
energy generation and consumption patterns globally.
Fundamental Principle and Types of Solar Cells
Photovoltaic Effect
The photovoltaic effect is a process that generates voltage or electric current in a photovoltaic cell when it is
exposed to sunlight. It is this effect that makes solar panels useful, as it is how the cells within the panel
convert sunlight to electrical energy. The photovoltaic effect was first discovered in 1839 by Edmond
Becquerel. When doing experiments involving wet cells, he noted that the voltage of the cell increased when
its silver plates were exposed to the sunlight. The photovoltaic effect occurs when photons with energy greater
than the semiconductor band gap excite electrons from the valence band to the conduction band, creating
electron-hole pairs. In a solar cell, an internal electric field at the p-n junction separates these charge carriers,
with electrons flowing toward the n-type region and holes toward the p-type region. This charge separation
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creates a photo-voltage that drives current through an external circuit. The theoretical maximum efficiency for
single-junction cells is limited by the Shockley-Queisser limit, which accounts for fundamental losses
including thermalization of high-energy photons, transmission of sub-band-gap photons, and radiative
recombination. For silicon, this theoretical limit approaches 33% under standard test conditions.
Silicon-Based Solar Cells
Silicon-based solar cells occupy the majority of the total solar cell market. Research on next generation solar
cells, such as quantum dot and organic solar cells, is in progress, but silicon-based solar cells are still expected
to occupy more than half of the market. In this paper, the current technological trends and the prospects for
silicon-based solar cells are discussed. Silicon dominates the commercial photovoltaic market, comprising over
95% of global production. Crystalline silicon cells are classified into three main types depending on how the Si
wafers are made. The types are based on the type of silicon used, specifically: Monocrystalline (Mono c-Si);
Polycrystalline (Poly c-Si); and Amorphous Silicon Cells. The oldest solar cell technology and still the most
popular and efficient are solar cells made from thin wafers of silicon. These are called monocrystalline solar
cells. Commercial production of c-Si modules began in 1963 when Sharp Corporation of Japan started
producing commercial PV modules and installed a 242-Watt (W) PV. Compared to the other types of Solar
PV, they have a higher efficiency (up to 26%), meaning you will obtain more electricity from a given area of
panel. Single crystal wafers are made by Czochralski process, as in silicon electronics. It comprises about 30%
of the market. The cost of fabricating single crystalline silicon solar cells is due to the purification process of
bulk. Polycrystalline silicon and amorphous silicon are much less pure than the single crystalline silicon and
most common because they are least expensive. The reason polycrystalline solar panels are less expensive than
monocrystalline solar panels, is because of the way the silicon is made. Basically, the molten silicon is poured
into a cast instead of being made into a single crystal. The highest recorded efficiency for polycrystalline
silicon cell is 21%
Monocrystalline Silicon (c-Si): Manufactured from single-crystal silicon ingots using the Czochralski
process, these cells achieve the highest efficiencies among silicon technologies. Commercial modules typically
reach 20-22% efficiency, with laboratory cells exceeding 26%. The uniform crystal structure minimizes
defects and grain boundaries that can reduce performance.
Polycrystalline Silicon (pc-Si): Produced through casting molten silicon into molds, these cells contain
multiple crystal grains and grain boundaries. While less efficient than monocrystalline cells (15-20% typical
efficiency), they require less energy to manufacture and offer cost advantages.
Amorphous Silicon (a-Si): This thin-film technology deposits non-crystalline silicon layers onto substrates.
Despite lower efficiency (6-10%), amorphous silicon enables flexible applications and requires minimal
material usage.
Thin-Film Technologies
Thin film solar panels, sometimes called film solar panels, use layers of light-absorbing materials instead of
traditional crystalline silicon. These materials include amorphous silicon (a-Si), cadmium telluride (CdTe), and
copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS). They are applied to a substrate like glass, metal, or plastic, making the
panels lightweight and flexible. Researchers at MIT have developed ultra light fabric solar cells that can be
easily applied to any surface, making it a portable and versatile power source. These thin and flexible solar
cells, which are thinner than human hair, can be integrated into various objects such as sails, tents, and even
the wings of drones. The solar cells are highly efficient; generating 18 times more power per kilogram
compared to conventional solar panels, and is made using scalable printing processes.
Thin film PV modules can be made lightweight, bendable, and even transparent, enabling integration into
various surfaces and applications. While thin film solar panels have advantages in aesthetics, cost and
versatility, they generally have a lower energy conversion efficiency rating than crystalline silicon panels, but
this could change as thin film solar technology advances. Thin-film solar cells deposit semiconductor materials
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in layers typically 1-4 micrometers thick, compared to 180-200 micrometers for silicon wafers. Major thin-film
technologies include:
Cadmium Telluride (CdTe): The leading thin-film technology achieves commercial efficiencies of 16-22%.
CdTe cells benefit from optimal bandgap properties (1.45 eV) and simplified manufacturing processes.
Copper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIGS): These cells achieve efficiencies of 20-23% through bandgap
tuning via gallium content adjustment. CIGS technology offers excellent performance but faces material
availability constraints.
Perovskite Solar Cells: Emerging perovskite materials demonstrate remarkable efficiency improvements,
with laboratory cells exceeding 25% efficiency. These materials offer low-temperature solution processing and
tunable optical properties.
Advanced Technologies
Multi-Junction Cells: Another strategy to improve PV cell efficiency is layering multiple semiconductors to
make multi-junction solar cells. These cells are essentially stacks of different semiconductor materials, as
opposed to single-junction cells, which have only one semiconductor. Each layer has a different band gap, so
they each absorb a different part of the solar spectrum, making greater use of sunlight than single-junction
cells. Multi-junction solar cells can reach record efficiency levels because the light that doesn’t get absorbed
by the first semiconductor layer is captured by a layer beneath it. While all solar cells with more than one band
gap are multi-junction solar cells, a solar cell with exactly two band gaps is called a tandem solar cell.
Multijunction solar cells that combine semiconductors from columns III and V in the periodic table are called
multi-junction III-V solar cells. These solar cells have demonstrated efficiencies higher than 45%, but they’re
costly and difficult to manufacture, so they’re reserved for space exploration. The military is using III-V solar
cells in drones, and researchers are exploring other uses for them where high efficiency is the key. Used
primarily in space applications and concentrated photovoltaic, these devices stack multiple semiconductor
layers with different band gaps to capture broader spectral ranges. Current terrestrial applications achieve
efficiencies of 40-47%.
Organic Photovoltaic’s (OPV): OPV, cells are composed of carbon-rich (organic) compounds and can be
tailored to enhance a specific function of the PV cell, such as band gap, transparency, or color. OPV cells are
currently only about half as efficient as crystalline silicon cells and have shorter operating lifetimes, but could
be less expensive to manufacture in high volumes. They can also be applied to a variety of supporting
materials, such as flexible plastic, making OPV able to serve a wide variety of uses. Utilizing carbon-based
materials, OPV technology enables ultra-lightweight, flexible applications. Current efficiencies reach 10-15%,
with ongoing research targeting improved stability and performance.
Efficiency Analysis and Performance Characteristics
Efficiency Metrics and Standards
Solar cell efficiency is measured under Standard Test Conditions (STC): 1000 W/m² irradiance, 25°C cell
temperature, and Air Mass 1.5 spectrum. Key performance parameters include:
Power Conversion Efficiency (η): The ratio of electrical power output to incident solar power
Open-Circuit Voltage (Voc): Maximum voltage when no current flows
Short-Circuit Current (Isc): Maximum current under zero voltage conditions
Fill Factor (FF): Measure of cell quality, calculated as the ratio of maximum power to the product of Voc and
Isc
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The efficiency trends and records of different types of cells are measured under standard conditions in the
laboratory. Some of the datas are: Silicon: 26.7% (monocrystalline), 22.3% (polycrystalline), CIGS: 23.4%,
CdTe: 22.1%, Perovskite: 25.7%, Multi-junction (terrestrial) 47.1%. Commercial module efficiencies typically
lag laboratory results by 2-6 percentage points due to manufacturing variations, interconnection losses, and
encapsulation effects.
Temperature and Environmental Effects
Solar cell performance varies significantly with operating conditions. Silicon cells exhibit temperature
coefficients of approximately -0.4 to -0.5%/°C for power output. High temperatures increase reverse saturation
current and decrease open-circuit voltage, reducing overall efficiency. Spectral variations affect different
technologies differently. Silicon responds optimally to red and near-infrared wavelengths, while thin-film
materials often capture blue light more effectively. Geographic location, atmospheric conditions, and seasonal
variations influence spectral distribution and cell performance.
Material Properties and Semiconductor Physics
Band gap Engineering
The semiconductor band gap determines which photons can create electron-hole pairs and influences open-
circuit voltage. Optimal band gaps for single-junction cells range from 1.1-1.5 eV, balancing current
generation from low-energy photons against voltage generation capability. Silicon's indirect band gap of 1.12
eV provides good spectral response but requires thicker active layers compared to direct band gap materials.
Compound semiconductors like GaAs offer direct band gaps enabling efficient light absorption in thin layers.
Solar cells require carefully controlled doping to create p-n junctions with appropriate electric fields. Typical
silicon cells use boron (p-type) and phosphorus (n-type) dopants at concentrations of 10¹⁵-10¹⁷ atoms/cm³.
Junction depth, typically 0.2-0.5 micrometers, must balance current collection against surface recombination
losses.
Optical Properties
The optical properties of solar cells are fundamental to their photovoltaic performance, determining how
effectively incident sunlight is absorbed, converted and extracted as electrical energy. These properties directly
influence key performance parameters including short-circuit current, quantum efficiency and overall power
conversion efficiency. Effective light management requires optimizing absorption, reflection, and transmission
characteristics. Anti-reflective coatings, typically silicon nitride with refractive index around 2.0, reduce
reflection losses from 30% to less than 2%. Surface texturing creates light-trapping effects that increase optical
path length and absorption probability. The absorption coefficient (α) determines how efficiently a material
absorbs photons at different wavelengths. High-performance solar cell materials exhibit strong absorption
coefficients (>10⁴ cm⁻¹) near the band edge, enabling effective light harvesting in thin films. Silicon shows
relatively weak absorption (α ≈ 10³ cm⁻¹), requiring thicker active layers, while direct bandgap materials like
GaAs and chalcogenides achieve strong absorption in micrometers-thin films. As solar technology evolves
toward higher efficiencies and lower costs, sophisticated optical engineering becomes increasingly critical for
realizing next-generation photovoltaic systems.
Synthesis and Manufacturing Processes
Silicon Processing
Silicon processing for solar cell manufacturing involves multiple sophisticated steps to transform raw silicon
into high-efficiency photovoltaic devices. The process combines materials purification, crystal growth, wafer
preparation, and device fabrication to create commercially viable solar cells with efficiencies exceeding 26%
for laboratory devices and 20-22% for commercial modules. The process begins with carbothermic reduction
of silica (SiO₂) in electric arc furnaces at temperatures above 1900°C, producing metallurgical grade silicon
(98-99% purity). This material contains impurities like iron, aluminum, and carbon that severely limit
photovoltaic performance. Purification to solar grade requires reducing impurity concentrations to parts-per-
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billion levels. The traditional Siemens process involves converting MG-Si to trichlorosilane (SiHCl₃), followed
by fractional distillation and chemical vapor deposition (CVD) to produce polycrystalline silicon rods with
99.9999% purity. Alternative methods include fluidized bed reactors and upgraded metallurgical processes for
cost reduction he dominant method for producing single-crystal silicon involves melting polysilicon in a quartz
crucible and slowly pulling a seed crystal to form cylindrical ingots. Critical parameters include pull rate (0.5-2
mm/min), rotation speed, and thermal gradients. Boron or phosphorus doping creates p-type or n-type
conductivity. Resulting wafers exhibit excellent crystalline quality but contain oxygen impurities from the
quartz crucible. Silicon ingots undergo diamond wire sawing to remove tops and tails, followed by grinding to
achieve cylindrical shape uniformity. Surface inspection identifies crystal defects and optimal cutting
orientations. Diamond wire saws cut ingots into wafers typically 180-200 μm thick, balancing mechanical
strength with material conservation. Kerf loss (material lost during cutting) continues decreasing through
improved wire technology, now approaching 100 μm per cut. As-cut wafers require damage removal and
cleaning. Alkaline etching (NaOH or KOH) removes saw damage and creates surface texture for light
trapping. Acid cleaning removes metallic contamination and prepares surfaces for subsequent processing.
Future Applications and Emerging Technologies
Building-Integrated Photovoltaic’s (BIPV)
Integration of solar cells into building materials creates dual-function systems that generate electricity while
serving structural or aesthetic purposes. Applications include, solar windows using transparent or semi-
transparent cells, photovoltaic roof tiles replacing conventional roofing materials, facade systems integrating
solar cells into building exteriors and solar canopies providing both shade and electricity generation. This
category of cells has high efficiency with moderate cost. However they are difficult to install because of their
large size.
Transportation Applications
Solar cells integrated into vehicle surfaces supplement battery charging for electric vehicles. Challenges
include curved surfaces, weight constraints, and durability requirements. Solar-powered vessels use flexible
photovoltaic systems integrated into sails or deck surfaces. Autonomous underwater vehicles utilize solar
charging for extended missions. Combining solar energy generation with agricultural production optimizes
land use efficiency. Elevated solar panels provide partial shading that can benefit certain crops while
generating electricity. Research indicates potential for increased crop yields in arid regions through reduced
water evaporation.
ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
Cost Trends and Projections
Solar photovoltaic costs have decreased dramatically, with module prices falling over 85% since 2010.
Levelized cost of energy (LCOE) for utility-scale solar has reached $0.03-0.06/kWh in optimal locations,
competing favorably with conventional generation sources. Manufacturing scale effects, technological
improvements, and supply chain optimization continue driving cost reductions. Perovskite and other emerging
technologies promise further cost decreases through simplified processing and abundant raw materials.
Environmental Impact
Solar cells offer significant environmental benefits through reduced greenhouse gas emissions compared to
fossil fuel generation. Life cycle assessments indicate energy payback times of 1-4 years for current
technologies. End-of-life recycling programs are developing to recover valuable materials and minimize waste.
Manufacturing impacts include energy consumption and chemical usage, but these are offset by decades of
clean energy generation. Emerging technologies using abundant, non-toxic materials could further reduce
environmental impacts.
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CONCLUSIONS
Solar cell technology has evolved from laboratory curiosity to a major component of global energy
infrastructure. Current silicon-based technologies provide reliable, cost-effective power generation, while
emerging materials and concepts promise even greater efficiency and versatility. The continued development
of perovskite, organic, and multi-junction technologies expands application possibilities beyond traditional
grid-connected systems. Integration into buildings, vehicles, and novel environments creates opportunities for
distributed energy generation and improved energy access. Future research directions emphasize improved
stability, reduced costs, and enhanced performance through advanced materials and manufacturing techniques.
The convergence of photovoltaic technology with energy storage, smart grids, and artificial intelligence will
enable more sophisticated and efficient energy systems. As global energy demands increase and climate
change concerns intensify, solar photovoltaic technology stands positioned to play an increasingly central role
in sustainable energy production. Continued innovation and deployment will be essential for realizing the full
potential of solar energy in addressing humanity's energy challenges.
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