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Geochemical Investigation of the Nanka Formation in Southeastern
Nigeria: Proxy for Sediment Provenance and Tectonic Setting
Elomba, U.F., Onuigbo, E.N., Madu, F.M., Aseh, P., Ahaneku, C.V.,Osuagwu, J.O., and Nwofia, U.E
Department of geological sciences, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Nigeria
DOI: https://doi.org/10.51244/IJRSI.2025.120800206
Received: 12 Aug 2025; Accepted: 21 Aug 2025; Published: 20 September 2025
ABSTRACT
This study investigates the geochemical characteristics of the Nanka Formation in the Niger Delta Basin,
southeastern Nigeria. The research was carried out in order to reconstruct it's sediment provenance, weathering
history, depositional environment, and tectonic setting. Representative sandstone samples collected from the
outcrop sections of the formation were analyzed for major and trace elements using X-ray Fluorescence (XRF)
and Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) techniques. The results revealed that the major
elements are dominated by silica with concentration value ranges of 72.95 and 82.14wt%. Comparison of the
major and trace elements concentrations in the investigated sediment with the Upper Continental Crust (UCC)
and Post-Archean Australian Shale (PAAS) indicated silica enrichment and depletion of Al2O3, CaO, MgO,
K2O and Na2O. Trace elements such as Ni, Co, Zn, Th and Zr were depleted with respect to PAAS. There is
also minor enrichment of U and Ba. The sandstones were classified as litharenites and sublitharenites.
Geochemical indices such as the Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA), Plagioclase Index of Alteration (PIA)
and Chemical Index of Alteration (CIW) have value ranges of 46.94 to 57.94%, 55.28 to 74.02% and 50.77 to
66.61% respectively. The value ranges of the indices are consistent with A- CN- K tenery plot of the
sandstone, suggesting moderate weathering. The Index of Compositional Variability (ICV) values of between
1.37 and 1.60% indicate immature source rock. The paleo- climatic condition is semi- humid. Nanka
Formation is sourced from felsic and intermediate igneous rocks from passive margin and was deposited in a
marginal marine setting.
Keywords: Geochemical, major elements, trace elements, depositional environment, Provenance.
INTRODUCTION
Awka and environs is underlain by the Imo and Nanka Formations, which are parts of the outcropping
sedimentary units of the Niger Delta Basin (Nwajide, 1979, 1980). The preservation of clastic sediments
provides comprehensive insights into the provenance, tectonic setting, paleo- weathering, paleo- climatic
condition and depositional environments of such sedimentary units. According to Oghenekome et al. (2016),
clastic sediments preserve detailed information on provenance and pattern in which the sediments were
transported.
The geochemical composition of siliclastic sediments is influenced by various factors, which include the
parent rock, relief, climate, sediment transport, deposition, and diagenetic processes. These factors have been
found to have an impact on the sediment characteristics (Dickinson et al., 1983; Dickinson, 1985, 1988; Basu,
1985). The utilization of geochemical signals in siliciclastic rocks has been employed to obtain insights into
several aspects, including sediment classification, provenance, tectonic environment, weathering conditions,
and paleo- climate (Roser and Korsch, 1988; Ahmad et al., 2014; Ejeh et al., 2015; Edegbai et al., 2019;
Overare et al., 2020).
This paper investigates the geochemical signatures of the Nanka Formation as a means to reconstruct its
provenance and infer its associated tectonic setting. The objectives of this study are to analyse the major and
trace element composition, Identify the geochemical signatures, interpret weathering intensity and sediment
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maturity, reconstruct the tectonic setting, evaluate the depositional environment and compare the geochemical
data with established global models.
The Study Area
The study area, Awka and environs is situated within latitudes 06º 10'0'' N and 06º 15'0'' N and longitudes 07º
0'0''E and 07º 5'30'' E and underlain by the Imo Formation and the investigated sediments of the Nanka
Formation (Fig. 1). The two formations are part of the outcropping Niger delta (Short and Stauble, 1967).
Fig. 1 Geologic map of the study area
Tectonics and Stratigraphic Setting
The emergence of the Niger Delta Basin is linked to the evolution of the Benue Rift as an aulacogen, a failed
arm of a triple junction, which occurred during the breakup of Gondwana supercontinent and the opening of
the southern Atlantic Ocean during the Jurassic period (Maron, 1969; Burke et al., 1972; Nwachukwu, 1972;
Olade, 1975; Wright, 1981; Benkhlil, 1982). The Benue Trough is a northeast-southwest oriented folding rift
basin that traverses Nigeria (Chukwu- Ike, 1981; Ajakaiye et al., 1986). The stratigraphy of the southern
Nigeria sedimentary basins occurred within the framework of three tectonic sedimentary cycles (Hoque and
Nwajide, 1984). The initial cycle, which span from the Aptian to Coniacian epochs resulted in the
accumulation of syn-rift sediments in various habitats, including continental and shallow marine settings. The
second cycle followed the Santonian folding and uplift of the sediments from the first cycle. Subsequently,
both the Anambra Basin and the Afikpo sub-basin had a period of subsidence. The initiation of the third cycle
occurred during the deposition of Campanian to early Paleocene facies within the Anambra Basin and Afikpo
sub-basin, followed by the subsequent lateral migration of sediment into the basin's interior (progradation)
throughout the late Paleocene to present-day, resulting in the formation of the contemporary Niger Delta
Basin. Fig. 2 is the stratigraphic succession in the Benue Trough, Anambra and the Niger Delta basins.
The Imo Formation is the basal lithostratigraphic unit of the outcropping part of the Niger Delta Basin. This is
conformably overlain by the Ameki Group (Ameki, Nanka and Nsugbe formations). The Ameki Group is
successively followed upwards by Ogwashi- Asaba and Benin formations (Nwajide, 2022).
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Fig. 2: Stratigraphic succession in the Benue Trough, Anambra and Niger Delta basins (Ekwenye and Nichol,
2015).
METHODOLOGY
Sediment samples were systematically collected from outcrop sections of the Nanka Formation within the
study area. The samples were dried, pulverized and subjected to major elements analysis using X-ray
Fluorescence (XRF), while trace elements were determined using Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass
Spectrometry (ICP-MS). Geochemical indices such as the Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA), Plagioclase
index of Alteration (PIA)and Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA) were calculated using standards. The Index
of Compositional Variability (ICV) was also determined to assess weathering and sediment maturity. Standard
geochemical discrimination diagrams were used to classify the sandstones, interpret paleo- climatic condition
of the source area, sediment provenance and tectonic setting and the paleoenvironment of deposition.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Major and Trace Elements Concentration
The results of geochemical analysis of the sediment samples from the investigated formation revealed the
concentration of both major and trace elements in the sands (Table 1a & b).
The major element oxides are dominated by SiO
2
, with concentration value ranges of 72.95 and 82.14 wt%.
Al
2
O
3
concentration varies from 3.50 to 8.32 wt%. The concentration values of between 1.74 and 4.34 wt%,
1.60 and 4.92 wt%, 0.05 and 0.56 wt%, 0.39 and 1.56 wt% and 0.14 and 0.82 wt% were obtained for Fe
2
O
3
,
CaO, MgO, K
2
O and Na
2
O respectively (Table 1a). Comparison of the concentration values of the major
element oxide in the sands of the Nanka Formation with the upper continental crust (UCC) of Rudnick and
Gao (2003) and Post- Archean Australian Shale (PAAS) of Taylor and McLennan (1985) indicate enrichment
of silica (SiO
2
) and depletion of Al
2
O
3
, Fe
2
O
3
, CaO, MgO, K
2
O and Na
2
O. Trace elements such as Ni, Co, Zn
and Zr are depleted whereas there is minor enrichment of U and Ba. Th is enriched with respect to UCC and
depleted with respect to PAAS (Table 1b).
Table 1a: The result of the Major element oxides (wt.%), their Ratios, Indices and Discriminant Functions
SAMPLE NO
D1
D2
E1
E2
R1
N2
Average
UCC
SiO
2
74.83
72.95
79.5
80.02
82.14
80.97
78.402
66.00
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Al
2
O
3
6.96
8.32
5.60
5.42
3.50
4.31
5.685
15.4
CaO
3.98
3.85
4.92
4.54
1.60
2.02
3.485
3.59
Fe
2
O
3
3.80
4.34
1.74
2.02
2.59
3.56
3.008
5.04
MgO
0.56
0.48
0.28
0.22
0.09
0.05
0.280
2.48
K2O
1.00
1.56
0.90
1.04
0.39
0.46
0.975
2.80
Na
2
O
0.82
0.63
0.51
0.27
0.17
0.14
0.423
3.27
Pb
2
O
5
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.05
0.03
0.03
0.15
MnO
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.012
0.10
SO
3
0.06
0.05
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.030
TiO
2
0.46
0.52
0.50
0.38
0.19
0.22
0.378
0.64
Cr
2
O
5
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.64
LOI
6.96
7.22
5.96
6.02
9.24
8.15
7.258
-
Log (Fe
2
O
3
/K
2
O)
0.404
0.444
0.286
0.288
0.822
0.889
0.522
SiO
2
/Al
2
O
3
10.751
8.768
14.196
14.764
23.469
18.787
15.123
4.29
Log (SiO
2
/Al
2
O
3
)
1.031
0.943
1.152
1.169
1.370
1.274
1.17
Log (K
2
O/Na
2
O)
0.262
0.394
0.247
0.586
0.361
0.517
CIA
52.489
57.939
46.940
48.092
61.837
63.193
54.915
52.76
PIA
67.836
74.021
55.281
58.977
71.721
71.714
66.592
53.49
CIW
59.184
65.00
50.771
52.981
66.414
66.615
60.161
58.88
MIA
4.978
15.878
-6.12
-3.816
23.674
24.386
ICV
1.598
1.368
1.579
1.563
1.437
1.497
1.507
1.16
F1x
39.147
38.744
40.554
40.627
39.306
39.62
39.666
F2x
42.66
14.34
23.83
22.97
22.34
18.49
24.11
F1y
F2y
Al2O3/TiO2
15.13
16.00
11.20
14.26
18.42
19.59
CIA = Chemical Index of Alteration
PIA = Plagioclase Index of Alteration
CIW = Chemical Index of Weathering
ICV = Chemical Index of Weathering
UCC = Upper Continental Crust
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PAAS = Post-Archean Austrian Average
Table 1b: Trace Elements (ppm) and their ratios
D1
D2
E1
E2
R1
N2
Average
UCC
PAAS
Cr
92.00
110.00
Ni
31.64
38.34
29.16
29.98
31.54
28.86
31.587
47.00
55.00
Zn
0.04
0.09
0.07
0.05
0.04
0.05
0.057
67.00
85.00
Co
8.81
8.94
6.33
6.14
5.82
5.13
6.862
17.30
23.00
Sb
10.34
9.32
7.01
8.21
7.93
8.30
8.518
Zr
0.06
0.04
0.06
0.09
0.03
0.03
0.052
193.00
210.00
Mo
0.21
0.27
0.30
0.36
0.33
0.37
0.307
Nb
15.63
10.93
7.93
9.00
11.19
12.04
11.120
12.00
19.00
Pb
20.32
18.04
21.32
20.43
23.68
20.98
20.795
Cu
6.74
6.82
6.45
6.62
6.25
6.02
6.483
28.00
50.00
Th
13.98
13.72
10.15
12.18
11.92
12.14
12.353
10.50
14.60
U
8.91
8.54
6.81
6.27
8.31
8.72
7.927
2.70
3.10
Ba
683.04
732.51
428.62
372.63
923.11
950.15
681.677
628.00
650.00
Sc
227.13
221.88
219.36
227.05
241.63
238.74
229.298
14.00
16.00
Sr
47.32
53.62
58.54
61.23
63.78
62.97
57.910
320.00
200.00
Cd
2.13
2.85
2.45
3.12
3.00
3.17
2.787
Rb
205.82
228.39
197.25
210.06
472.28
438.61
292.068
82.00
160.00
Hf
2.21
2.39
3.27
2.85
1.22
1.09
2.172
5.30
5.00
V
68.3
70.21
56.73
54.82
61.24
58.47
61.628
Y
7.45
7.94
7.02
7.00
8.73
8.49
7.772
La
0.05
0.05
0.08
0.11
0.05
0.03
0.062
Sr/Ba
0.07
0.07
0.14
0.16
0.07
0.07
Ni/Co
3.59
4.29
4.61
4.88
5.42
5.63
V/Cr
1.00
1.03
0.83
0.80
0.90
0.85
Cr/V
1.00
0.97
1.21
1.23
1.11
1.17
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U/Th
0.64
0.62
0.67
0.51
0.70
0.72
Y/Ni
0.24
0.21
0.24
0.23
0.28
0.29
Correlation of Alumina with Major Element Oxides
Pearson correlation coefficient from bivariate plots of Al
2
O
3
versus other major oxides, indicates that Al₂O₃
shows very strong positive correlations with MgO, K
2
O and TiO
2
and strong positive correlation with Fe
2
O
3
and CaO and very strong negative correlation with SiO
2
. The strong positive correlation which exists between
Al
2
O
3
and other major element oxides suggest association in an aluminum silicate rocks such k-feldspars and
ferromagnesian minerals. The depletion of these major element oxides and an enrichment of silica in the sands
depict chemical weathering of the feldspars and the ferromagnesian minerals during which quartz are left
behind because of its superior hardness and susceptibility to chemical weathering.
Fig. 3(a – f) Pearson correlation coefficient of major oxides
Classification of Nanka Sands
In the classification of the sand, Log (Fe
2
O
3
/K
2
O) vs Log (SiO
2
/Al
2
O
3
) of Herron (1988) employed indicated
the sands to comprise of litharenites and sublitharenites. Litharenites contains a significant amount of rock
fragments, typically exceeding 25% of the total composition while the sublitharenites is characterized by a
moderate amount of rock fragments in its composition, typically ranging between 5% to 25%. The low Al
2
O
3
contents of the sands placed them under arenite family.
Fig. 4: The classification of Nanka Sands
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Paleo-Weathering History
The paleo- weathering history of the source area is assessed using the weathering Indices and the A- CN- K
tenery plot.
Weathering Indices
The results of source area weathering evaluation using the weathering Indices (CIA, CIW, PIA and MIA) is
presented in Table 1a and interpreted as Follows;
The Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA)
The calculated values of CIA range from 46.94 to 63.19%, with an average of 54.91% (Table 1a). This
indicates moderate weathering of the source rocks.
The Chemical Index of Weathering (CIW)
The calculated CIW values varied from 50.77 to 66.41% (Table 1a), suggesting moderate weathering of the
source rocks.
Plagioclase Index of Alternation (PIA)
The PIA value ranges of between 55.28 and 74.021% obtained is consistent with CIA and CIW, indicating
moderate weathering.
Mineralogical Index of Alternation (MIA)
The MIA value ranges from indicate weak to incipient degree of weathering. The evidences from the
weathering Indices suggest that chemical alteration of the rock was moderate.
Weathering Trend
The weathering trend for the source area of the Nanka sediments, the (CaO + Na
2
O) – Al
2
O
3
– K
2
O triangular
plot shows that almost all the sands of the area plot on a line parallel to the A-K line and thus, suggest weak to
intermediate silicate weathering.
Fig. 5: Paleo-weathering trend of Nanka Sands using the A-CN-K triangular plot, developed by Nesbitt and
Young (1984) and utilized by Fedo et al. (1995).
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Index of Compositional Variability (ICV) and Sediment Maturity
The ICV values for the studied sandstone samples range from 1.368 to 1.598. Such values in sandstone
indicate low compositional maturity. This is suggesting immature source rock that is rich in silicate minerals.
The bivariate plot of ICV vs CIA for the Nanka Sand is presented as Fig. 6.
Fig. 6: ICV vs CIA plot showing the maturity and intensity of chemical weathering for the studied samples
Paleo- climatic Condition
The paleo- climatic condition of the source area for the Nanka Sand evaluated based on the bivariate plot of
Suttner and Dutta (1986) indicated semi humid to humid climate (Fig. 7). The semi humid to humid climatic
condition of the source area may have promoted rapid decomposition of feldspars and other ferromagnesian
minerals in the source rocks and deposition of the sands and clays which is the typical attribute of the Nanka
formation.
Fig. 7: bivariate plot Awka based on Suttner and Dutta (1986)
Provenance and Tectonic setting
Provenance
The Al₂O₃/TiO₂ ratio in sediments is a vital tool that helps to identify whether the sediments came from felsic,
intermediate, or mafic igneous rocks (Garcia et al., 1994; Hayashi et al., 1997). According to Hayashi et al.
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(1997); High ratios (21–70) suggest the sediment came from felsic rocks (like granite), medium ratios (8–21)
indicate an intermediate rock source (like andesite or diorite) and low ratios (3–8) mean the sediment was
likely from mafic rocks (like basalt or gabbro). The Al₂O₃/TiO₂ ratios of the samples in Table 1 range from
11.20 to 19.59, which means they likely came from intermediate igneous rocks like andesite or diorite, rather
than felsic (granite) or mafic (basalt) sources.
Fig. 8 (a) is a bivariate scatter diagram of Al
2
O
3
/TiO
2
vs. SiO
2
of the investigated sediment (Le Bas et al.,
1986; Zaid and Al Gahtani, 2015) and Fig. 8(b) is the bivariate scatter plot of TiO
2
vs Ni (after Floyd et al.,
1989). The two plots suggested that the sediments of the Nanka Formation are mainly sourced from
intermediate igneous rocks.
Fig. 9 is a Discriminant Function Analysis (DFA) plot used to classify sedimentary rocks based on their
geochemical compositions, following the Roser & Korsch (1988) provenance classification system. The
distribution of the samples across the DFA diagram provides insights into the tectonic setting and sedimentary
processes affecting the study area. The presence of samples in the Quartzose Sedimentary Provenance field
indicates that a significant portion of the sedimentary material has been subject to long-term weathering and
recycling, typical of stable continental environments. Meanwhile, the presence of samples in the Intermediate
Igneous Provenance field suggests the influence of volcanic arc activity, pointing to a mixed sedimentary input
from both continental and volcanic sources. Overall, the data suggests a heterogeneous provenance.
Fig. 8(a) Scatter diagram of Al
2
O
3
/TiO
2
vs. (SiO
2
) adj. of the investigated shales (Le Bas et al., 1986; Zaid and
Al Gahtani, 2015). Fig. 8(b) TiO
2
vs. Ni plot. Fields and trends after Floyd et al. (1989).
Fig. 9: Discriminant Function Analysis (DFA) plot following the Roser & Korsch (1988) provenance
classification system
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Tectonic Setting
The bivariate plot of Roser and Korsch (1986) employed in the discrimination of the tectonic setting of the
investigated sands plot in the field of passive margin (Fig. 10). Based on the geochemical plot, the data points
fall within the region labeled "Passive Margin". This suggests that the sedimentary rocks of the Eocene
sediments of Awka and its environs are likely derived from a passive margin tectonic setting.
Fig. 10 sandstone-mudstone discrimination using the geochemical plot of log K
2
O/Na
2
O vs. SiO
2
(%)
Depositional Environment
The Sr/ Ba ratio value ranges of 0.07 and 0.16 suggests freshwater environment and the bivariate plot of V vs
Al2O3 after Mortazavi et al. (2014) indicated shallow marine plus fluvial input (Fig. 10). The oxidizing nature
of the environment assessed using the V/ (V + Ni) vs. Ni/Co ratio (Hatch and Leventhal, 1992) and the
bivariate plot of V/Cr vs Ni/Co after Jones and Manning (1994) (Fig. 11) indicated oxic to dysoxic
depositional settings.
Fig 11(a) Cross plots of redox-sensitive trace metal ratios V/Cr vs. Ni/Co (Jones and Manning, 1994), and
11(b) Cross plots of redox-sensitive elements ratios V/(V + Ni) vs. Ni/Co (Hatch and Leventhal, 1992). 11(c)
Paleo-environmental reconstruction of the investigated shales using V. vs. Al
2
O
3
bivariate plot (After
Mortazavi et al., 2014).
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CONCLUSION
This study demonstrates that the Nanka Formation sediments were derived from moderately weathered
intermediate igneous rocks and deposited in a passive margin setting. The geochemical signatures reflect a
semi-humid to humid paleoclimate and a depositional environment transitioning from freshwater to shallow
marine under oxic to dysoxic conditions. These results enhance our understanding of the sedimentary
processes, provenance, and tectonic evolution within the southeastern margin of the Niger Delta Basin.
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