This article examines the intricate relationship between the global political economy and educational reforms in

the Global South, with a particular focus on Ghana's development trajectory. Drawing on literature from

historical institutionalism and critical political economy, this research will examine how the international

development industry, donor conditionalities, and the evolving political economy of the global context have

influenced policy-making processes and educational modes in Ghana from independence to the present day. In

the abstract, I will present my main argument: educational reforms in Ghana are often perceived and assessed as

internal responses to national development issues, but they are deeply rooted and heavily shaped by the global

political economy and ideological currents. In this paper, I will highlight the key drivers of reform in Ghana (the

Nkrumah era, SAPs, and the recently introduced free SHS policy); identify what fuels reform (i.e., ideologies,

The relationship between education and national development remains a subject of scholarly and policy debate,

widely regarded not only as a human right but also as a significant driver of social mobility and a key contributor

to economic growth and national development (UNESCO, 2023; Mensah & Ofori-Atta, 2023). It is an important

pillar for nations to build human capital, nurture innovation, and develop a well-informed citizenry that

effectively enacts its rights in all economic and democratic purposes (Agyeman & Darko, 2024). Despite the

development of educational systems in many countries of the Global South, including Ghana, being critically

shaped by aspects of the global political economy, they remain multifaceted and complex phenomena. The global

Ghana, a country in West Africa with a complex and at times complicated history of colonialism and development

aspirations in the post-colonial era, is a highly relevant case to examine these intricate interactions. Ghana has

had a number of different educational policies since independence in 1957 which represent various ways to

amalgamate the domestic goals the policy makers hoped to achieve, with the global economic and political

contexts of the time (Salifu et al., 2024; Akyeampong & Ampiah, 2018), from Kwame Nkrumah's grand plans

to promote mass education, through periods of austerity with structural adjustment programmes, to the present,

in which current responses seek to increase access to education. Ghana's educational development would provide

a distinctive and valuable context for critically examining how the global political economy has reshaped

viewpoints above neglects the fact that historical processes also involve prolonged external influences, which

The central objective of this paper is to examine how global political and economic forces have specifically

influenced the trajectory of educational reforms in Ghana and what these influences may portend for the country

in the long term. This inquiry aims to move beyond viewing educational policy as an exclusively endogenous

variable and to acknowledge the deep embedding of national policy decisions within a multi-layered and

increasingly globalised context (Amoako & Otchere, 2024). We will therefore shed light on the complicated web

The goal of this paper is to present comprehensive answers to the related research questions. What were the main

phases of educational reforms in Ghana since independence in 1957, and what were the main policy changes,

relevance to Ghana's national development priorities and to labour market needs? Finally, in what ways has the

sovereign nation of Ghana managed the conflict and tensions associated with its own defined development goals,

as well as the imposed global education agendas? What forms of national agency, adaptation and/or resistance

This paper posits that Ghana's educational reform process is inherently linked to and shaped by shifting global

political economy structures. As a result, external pressures often create a paradox: on the one hand, externally

pressured policies increase access, while the manner in which these policies emerge restricts policy

independence, promotes dependence, and, in some respects, sustains inequities within the educational system.

These complex interrelationships underscore the ongoing challenges of achieving genuinely endogenous and

of Ghana's educational reforms, thereby offering nuance and an original contribution to the country's political

The historical scope allows for the recognition of enduring patterns and legacies. From a policy perspective, the

findings should provide policymakers in Ghana and other countries in the Global South with specific insights

into the development constraints examined in this thesis. In this sense, it underscores the importance of

educational institutions and policymakers collaborating with their international partners in a deliberate and

informed manner. More importantly, the need to build and protect greater policy autonomy, and to ensure

educational reforms are genuinely based on and serve the national development priorities that promote equity

across, and improve quality in, all parts of the education system (Mensah & Ofori-Atta, 2023; Owusu & Boateng,

2022). The systematic exposure of both historical patterns of external influences and their impacts in this study

should serve as a guide for future policies that may help nations manoeuvre the facets of the globalised

during the period shortly after independence. Lastly, Section 4 examines the transformative phase of structural

adjustment and neoliberal reforms, analysing the far-reaching and significant impacts of these sector-wide

arrangements on Ghana's education sector. In Section 5, we then examine recent influences on educational policy

and practices, namely, globalisation, the introduction of Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs), and the

Global Political Economy (GPE) is an energetic and inherently interdisciplinary field which scrutinises the

commingled and often interdependent nature of international politics and economics. It emphasises an

interrelationship based on the premise that the two fields are not separate, but rather, they jointly shape global

socio-economic growth (Amoako & Otchere, 2024; Gyimah-Boadi & Prempeh, 2023). GPE encompasses a

range of theoretical positions from which diverse perspectives can be gleaned to examine education and socio-

economic politics in various ways. Liberal perspectives, for example, tend to advocate for the benefits associated

with free markets, open international trade, and global cooperation; education is described as one variable in a

range of policies to optimise human capital, innovations and global economic competitiveness within deeply

entwined relationships (Owusu & Boateng, 2022; Mensah & Ofori-Atta, 2023). This perspective often aligns

with Allan Blume's (2023) human capital theory, which has attempted to conceptualise education as either an

critical political economy approach of the historical institutionalism framework will provide the best

understanding from material (economic structures and relations of power) and ideational (dominant paradigms

of development, normative policy principles) analysis of Ghana's educational policy over time; when we look at

material and ideational sources in tandem, we will have a clearer understanding of how global power relations

In many developing countries, international financial institutions (IFIs), notably the World Bank and the IMF,

along with major UN agencies (e.g., UNESCO) and various bilateral donors, have played a crucial role in shaping

aid, conditionalities on the use of funding, technical assistance, and advocacy of specific development

approaches and "best practices" (Osei-Fosu & Asare, 2023; Mensah & Ofori-Atta, 2023). These actors typically

operate in a situation of "governing education globally", where a range of norms and regulations influence

decentralisation, the privatisation of educational services, and the introduction of competency-based curricula

(Owusu & Boateng, 2022). "Conditionalities," a powerful mechanism, refer to the conditions or prerequisites

that donors impose on loans or grants. In these cases, recipient countries are obliged to implement specific policy

reforms as a condition of financial assistance. Conditionalities often reflect the prevailing economic and

Furthermore, the rise and impact of "epistemic communities," transnational networks of experts with shared

values, expertise, and a common commitment to specific policy solutions, can leverage global debates about

education and influence particular policy decisions in countries like Ghana (Gyimah-Boadi & Prempeh, 2023;

Salifu et al., 2024). These communities often shape the languages and structures in which educational problems

are defined and solutions proposed. To better understand the complex mechanisms by which external pressures

have shaped (and continue to shape) Ghana's educational environment, it is necessary to examine these

Education is, plainly, much more than a social service; it is intimately and structurally tied to larger economic

and political considerations, both locally and globally. Global economic ideologies, such as human capital theory,

which views education as a means to invest in future individual productivity (and, by extension, national

productivity), have significantly influenced the purposes and approaches to educational systems across various

contexts (Agyeman & Darko, 2024; Owusu & Boateng, 2022). Human capital theory is also used as a

justification for international aid to education. The spread of neoliberalism in the late 20th century, as a new

economic model focused on market efficiency, deregulation, privatisation, and budget austerity forced a

significant paradigm shift in educational policy in the Global South which was typified by cost-recovery regimes,

an emphasis on vocational training, and a strong orientation towards the skills required for entry into the global

market (Osei-Fosu & Asare, 2023; Akyeampong & Ampiah, 2018). The objectives were to facilitate a more

when education models and policy options are so distinct that they overlap in the same area, based on different

needs requiring different approaches (Frimpong & Addo, 2023). This is also indicative of the continuing

on educational reforms in Ghana. In essence, it asserts that any particular policy choice or configuration of

institutional actors is not only determined by rational thought made in isolation or at an anomalous time, but that

it is also historically and durably shaped by previous decisions, historical events, and prior institutions, power

relations, and policy regimes (Gyimah-Boadi & Prempeh, 2023; Salifu et al., 2024). Overall, this helps highlight

continue to influence future educational reforms (Akyeampong & Ampiah, 2018). Historical legacies inherently

Additionally, "critical junctures" refer to instances when a significant crisis or transformation occurs, which can

disrupt a previous trajectory or fundamentally alter it; at this point, new institutional arrangements and policy

pathways can emerge (Amoako & Otchere, 2024). This project will analyse how global political-economic

changes have served as critical junctures that have rerouted certain aspects of Ghana's educational pathways and

embedded specific features in these pathways that still characterise Ghana's educational landscape today,

notwithstanding ongoing reforms (Mensah & Ofori-Atta, 2023). In this way, the project can offer a nuanced and

The framework that defines contemporary educational systems in Ghana, as well as the key elements of the

educational process, was established during the colonial period under British rule. This was mainly achieved

through the efforts of Christian missionaries, but ultimately by the colonial authorities. The premise and structure

of the emerging education system were closely linked to, and developed in support of, broader colonial economic

and administrative objectives (Akyeampong & Ampiah, 2018; Boafo-Arthur, 2019). Early mission schools

(though they existed prior to direct colonial government control) focused narrowly on basic literacy and religious

instruction, serving as a means of evangelisation and promoting Christianity (Quaye & Owusu, 2020). This early

phase and experience laid the foundation for more 'formal schooling', although it did not encompass formal