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Climate Change, Inequality and Uneven Development in Africa by
Etta-Nyoh Yvan Ayuk (Ph.D.) & Elangwe Gideon Eyakwe
Ayuk Yvan Etta-Nyoh, Elangwe Gideon Eyakwe
University of Buea, Cameroon
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.51244/IJRSI.2025.120800298
Received: 26 Aug 2025; Accepted: 02 Sep 2025; Published: 07 October 2025
ABSTRACT
This paper titled climate change, inequality and uneven development in Africa sets out to investigate the
relationship between climate change, inequality and uneven development in Africa. Africa stands at the
frontline of climate change despite being one of the lowest contributors to global greenhouse gas emissions.
The continent is experiencing a surge in climate-related disasters like droughts, floods, heatwaves,
desertification, and rising sea levels which are directly affecting agricultural productivity, human health,
migration patterns, and general well-being. However, these impacts are not felt equally. The paper contends
that climate change in Africa not only exposes environmental vulnerability but also exacerbates existing socio-
economic inequalities and contributes to the continent’s uneven development. Using case studies from regions
such as the Sahel, the Horn of Africa, and Southern Africa, this study shows how marginalized populations
especially rural communities, women, and youth are disproportionately affected by climate-related shocks. A
mixed-method approach is employed, drawing from climate vulnerability indices, socio-economic data, and
field studies to illustrate how development disparities are being widened by ecological disruptions. The study
adopts the lenses of climate justice, dependency theory, and sustainable development to examine the structure
and consequence of inequality in the face of climate change. The findings suggest that African governments, in
collaboration with regional and global partners, must address this crisis through strategic policy interventions
that combine climate adaptation, equitable resource allocation, and inclusive development planning.
Recommendations include investing in climate-resilient infrastructure, ensuring access to clean energy, and
advocating for fair international climate financing mechanisms. Ultimately, this article highlights that without
environmental justice and equality, sustainable development in Africa will remain elusive.
Key Words: Climate Change; Inequality; Uneven Development; Resilience; Africa
INTRODUCTION
Climate change is no longer a distant or abstract phenomenon; it is an everyday reality that is reshaping
livelihoods, economies, and ecosystems particularly in Africa. Despite contributing less than 4% of global
greenhouse gas emissions (UNEP, 2023), Africa faces some of the most severe consequences of climate
change. Rising temperatures, shifting rainfall patterns, desertification, sea level rise, and increased frequency
of extreme weather events like floods and droughts are now commonplace across the continent. While climate
change affects the entire world, it does not do so equally. In Africa, its impacts are complexified by deep-
rooted social and economic inequalities. Urban elites with access to cooling systems, clean water, and reliable
infrastructure are better protected from climate shocks than rural populations who depend directly on the
environment for survival. Similarly, countries with higher GDPs and stronger institutions are better able to
plan and implement climate adaptation strategies than those burdened with debt, weak governance, and
poverty. This intersection of environmental risk and socio-economic disparity has given rise to what scholars
and policymakers describe as a “climate inequality trap” a cycle in which climate change exacerbates existing
vulnerabilities, thereby slowing or reversing development gains (Barrett et al., 2022). This is particularly
evident in Sub-Saharan Africa, where over 60% of the population depends on rain-fed agriculture (FAO,
2021), yet faces rapidly declining rainfall and unpredictable growing seasons. Moreover, the consequences of
climate change are not only economic; they are also political and cultural. Climate-related displacement is
increasing, forcing people to migrate from rural to urban areas, or across borders, putting pressure on already
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fragile infrastructure and governance systems. This has led to growing social tensions, resource conflicts, and
political instability in several African countries and geostrategic zones including the Lake Chad and Congo
Basins, Somalia, and Sudan. At the continental scale, development remains uneven. Countries like South
Africa, Morocco, and Kenya are moving ahead with green energy investments and climate-smart agriculture,
while others, such as Chad, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and Burkina Faso, struggle with basic
environmental governance due to conflict, poverty, or institutional weaknesses. This developmental disparity
further widens inequality, creating a two-tiered system of adaptation and resilience across the continent.
This article seeks to examine how climate change acts not only as an environmental issue but also as a
magnifier of inequality and a driver of uneven development in Africa. It explores the theoretical linkages
among climate change, social inequality, and development, while grounding the analysis in both qualitative
insights and quantitative data. The aim is to provide a clear and balanced understanding of how climate change
interacts with socio-economic systems in Africa and to make suggestions as to what can be done to mitigate its
most damaging effects.
To achieve this aim, the study is guided by the following problematique: How does climate change
disproportionately affect different groups and regions in Africa? Specifically, the problematique is articulated
in the following questions:
In what ways does climate change deepen existing social and economic inequalities in Africa?
What are the implications of climate change for sustainable development in Africa?
What policy frameworks or strategies can African countries adopt to break this cycle?
Theoretical Considerations
As tools for analyzing and understanding the complex relationship between climate change, inequality, and
uneven development in Africa, this article draws from three interconnected theoretical lenses: Dependency
Theory, Climate Justice Theory, and Sustainable Development Theory. These frameworks help contextualize
why Africa is disproportionately affected, why development remains fragmented, and what structural
dynamics prevent effective adaptation.
Dependency Theory
The Dependency Theory originates from post-colonial economic thought and argues that developing countries
especially in Africa have been structurally disadvantaged by their historical relationship with the global
capitalist system (Rodney, 1972; Frank, 1967). This theory asserts that African nations continue to rely on
wealthier countries for trade, technology, aid, and investment, while exporting raw materials under unequal
terms.
In the context of climate change, the dependency theory explains why African countries:
Have limited control over global emissions policy;
Rely on foreign aid for adaptation and mitigation efforts;
Lack technological autonomy in energy transitions.
For example, while the EU and the United States develop electric vehicles and transition to renewable energy,
African nations often import second-hand technologies, remain tied to fossil fuel exports, and depend on
Western-dominated climate finance institutions (Bond, 2012). Thus, dependency theory demonstrates that
Africa’s vulnerability to climate change is not just environmental, as it is rooted in structural inequalities in the
global economic order.
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Climate Justice Theory
The Climate Justice Theory on its part emphasizes the ethical and political dimensions of climate change. It
seeks to answer: Who is responsible? Who suffers? And who should pay?
The theory holds that climate change is not just an environmental crisis, but a human rights and equity crisis.
According to Roberts and Parks (2007), industrialized countries have historically emitted the vast majority of
greenhouse gases, yet poorer countries in the Global South bear the brunt of the consequences. This injustice is
even more pronounced within countries, where the rich can insulate themselves from environmental shocks
while the poor face them directly.
In Africa, climate justice theory helps explain:
Why rural farmers in Niger are more vulnerable than business elites in Lagos.
Why coastal fishing communities in Mozambique suffer more from cyclones than tourism investors with
insurance.
Why women and children in climate-affected zones face higher mortality and migration pressures (UN
Women, 2020).
Climate justice advocates for:
A rights-based approach to climate adaptation,
International mechanisms for climate reparations, and
Inclusive policies that empower vulnerable populations in decision-making processes.
Sustainable Development Theory
Popularized by the Brundtland Commission Report in 1987, the sustainable development framework promotes
the idea of meeting “the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs.” The theory is particularly useful for analyzing uneven development in Africa in the face of
climate change. While some African nations prioritize short-term economic growth (for example, expanding
mining or oil extraction), others are investing in long-term resilience such as renewable energy, eco-
agriculture, and conservation.
The Sustainable Development theory helps frame:
The trade-offs between development and environmental conservation.
The importance of policy coherence aligning national development plans with climate adaptation goals.
The need for regional coordination, since climate effects do not stop at borders.
For instance, Ethiopia’s Green Legacy Initiative aims to plant billions of trees to combat land degradation and
boost resilience. Meanwhile, Nigeria’s dependence on oil extraction has left many delta communities exposed
to both environmental degradation and climate risks, contributing to persistent underdevelopment.
These three theories; Dependency, Climate Justice, and Sustainability are not mutually exclusive. In fact, they
work together to explain why:
Africa remains vulnerable despite decades of “development assistance,”
The global climate response remains skewed toward powerful nations,
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Internal inequality limits the ability of African governments to adapt equitably.
Together, these theoretical builds help guide the analysis in the next sections of this paper, especially the
Methodology, Findings, and Discussions, where data and real-life examples are interpreted through these
theoretical considerations.
METHODOLOGY
This section outlines the research approach used to investigate the relationship between climate change,
inequality, and uneven development in Africa. A mixed-methods research approach was adopted, combining
both qualitative and quantitative data to provide a well-rounded understanding of the issues under
consideration.
Given the complexity of the topic, a descriptive research design was employed. This allowed for the
interpretation of patterns, relationships, and trends across different African regions. Data analysis and
interpretation was done using the thematic content interpretation of development indicators.
Quantitative data was sourced from internationally recognized institutions such as:
The World Bank (2022–2023) for income inequality and development indices.
The UNDP Human Development Reports for HDI rankings.
The Notre Dame Global Adaptation Initiative (ND-GAIN Index) for climate vulnerability and readiness
scores.
The Global Carbon Atlas for emission statistics.
Qualitative data was collected from Scholarly articles, Policy documents from African governments, NGO and
UN agency reports (such as UNEP, IPCC), Climate justice advocacy reports. The study did not rely on field
interviews but instead focused on the purposive sampling of African countries and regions that demonstrate
significant variations in climate impact and development.
Countries analyzed included:
Highly vulnerable and low-income: Chad, Niger, Mozambique.
Middle-income with resilience efforts: Kenya, Ghana, South Africa.
Resource-rich but environmentally fragile: Nigeria, Angola, DR Congo.
Variables Used in Analysis
The following variables were used to draw correlations between climate change, inequality, and development:
Table 1: Variables used in the study
Variable
Measurement Tool
Purpose in Study
Climate Vulnerability
ND-GAIN Index
Measures exposure and sensitivity to climate
Income Inequality
Gini Coefficient (World
Bank)
Assesses distribution of wealth
Human Development
HDI (UNDP)
Gauges access to health, education, and
income
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Global Carbon Atlas
Compares national carbon footprints
ND-GAIN Readiness Index
Evaluates capacity to adapt to climate
impacts
FAO Reports
Shows exposure through agriculture
OECD and AfDB Data
Measures external support for climate action
Source: Authors’ conception, 2025
The study made use of several analytical tools and techniques including: Cross-tabulation to relate climate
vulnerability and inequality across countries; Bar charts and pie graphs to visualize disparities; Thematic
grouping for qualitative findings, such as recurring adaptation barriers; Comparative analysis of national
climate policies and their social impacts.
Limitations of the Methodology
While secondary data is useful for comparative regional analysis, it may not reflect current realities on the
ground, especially in conflict-affected zones where data collection is poor. Additionally, the absence of
primary interviews limits insight into personal experiences of inequality, but the inclusion of NGO reports and
government statements helps to fill these gaps.
Table 2: Summary of Key Indicators and Sources Used
Indicator
Source
Year
Climate Vulnerability Index
ND-GAIN
2023
Human Development Index (HDI)
UNDP
2023
Gini Coefficient
World Bank
2022
Rural Population %
FAO
2022
Greenhouse Gas Emissions (MtCO₂)
Global Carbon Atlas
2022
Climate Adaptation Funds Received
OECD/Green Climate Fund
2023
Source: Authors’ conception, 2025
This structured approach lays the groundwork for the Findings section, where real data from selected countries
is presented in charts and tables to expose the relationships between environmental stress, inequality, and
development gaps in Africa.
FINDINGS
Data Insights on Climate Change, Inequality, and Uneven Development in Africa
This section presents and interprets real-world data drawn from secondary sources to examine how climate
change contributes to inequality and uneven development across African countries. The findings are organized
into three broad categories:
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Climate Vulnerability vs. Economic Capacity
Unequal Climate Impacts Across Populations and Regions
Disparities in Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Each subsection includes charts, tables, or graphs to visualize key patterns.
Climate Vulnerability vs. Economic Capacity
Africa is home to some of the world’s most climate-vulnerable countries. Yet many of these same countries
have the lowest adaptive capacity, limited institutional readiness, and constrained public finance. This creates a
dangerous mismatch between exposure and resilience.
Table 3: Top 10 Most Climate-Vulnerable Countries in Africa
Country
Vulnerability Score
Readiness Score
HDI Rank (UNDP 2023)
Chad
0.16
0.24
190/193
Central African Republic
0.18
0.25
188/193
Sudan
0.21
0.28
185/193
Niger
0.23
0.31
189/193
DR Congo
0.26
0.33
180/193
Mozambique
0.27
0.30
182/193
Mali
0.29
0.32
186/193
Burkina Faso
0.30
0.35
183/193
Ethiopia
0.33
0.39
175/193
Somalia
0.34
0.20
N/A
Source: ND-GAIN, 2023
These countries are not only ecologically exposed but also economically fragile and politically unstable,
making it difficult for them to implement climate adaptation strategies. This contributes to development
stagnation or decline.
Unequal Climate Impacts Across Populations and Regions
Climate change does not affect everyone equally. Populations in rural areas, informal settlements, and conflict-
prone regions face the brunt of climate disasters, leading to increased migration, hunger, school dropouts, and
income shocks.
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Fig 1: Populations Affected by Major Climate Events in Africa (2020–2023)
Source: Adapted from State and trends in adaptation report 2022
Country
Event Type
Estimated People Affected (Millions)
Nigeria
Floods
2.8 million
Kenya
Drought
4.5 million
Mozambique
Cyclones (Idai, Freddy)
3.2 million
Somalia
Drought/Famine
6.7 million
South Sudan
Floods
1.3 million
Table 4: Populations Affected by Major Climate Events in Africa (2020–2023)
Source: Adapted from State and trends in adaptation report 2022
In many of the cases in the demonstrations above, poor and rural populations lost access to food, shelter, water,
and income. For example, in Somalia, repeated droughts between 2020 and 2023 led to widespread
displacement, hunger, and child malnutrition (FAO, 2023).
Disparities in Climate Adaptation and Resilience
While some African countries are investing in clean energy, early-warning systems, and urban infrastructure
upgrades, others lag far behind due to low revenue generation, poor governance, or conflict. This reflects the
uneven development and advancement of climate resilience. Table 5 below illustrates the level of revenue
allocation to climate adaptation in some African countries.
Table 5: Comparative Climate Adaptation Spending
Country
National Adaptation Budget
% of GDP
Key Focus Area
South Africa
$1,200 million
0.28%
Renewable energy, coastal defense
Kenya
$450 million
0.41%
Water systems, smart agriculture
Ghana
$320 million
0.35%
Climate-resilient infrastructure
Chad
$55 million
0.09%
Drought relief and food security
Niger
$60 million
0.10%
Community water access
Source: USD Million, 2023.
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Wealthier or more politically stable countries can dedicate more funds to adaptation. However, even middle-
income countries like Kenya still struggle to meet rising needs. Fragile states like Chad and Niger spend far
less — often relying on donor funding or emergency response instead of long-term planning.
Youth, Gender, and Rural Disparities
Climate vulnerability is also shaped by demographics. Women and youth in Africa are disproportionately
affected due to limited land rights, unequal access to education, and exclusion from climate decision-making.
Fig 2: Gender Access to Climate Resources (Selected Countries, 2022)
Source: Adapted from Gender equality in climate action – UNDP, 2025
Observation: In Kenya, only 23% of landowners are women, despite women producing 70% of food. In
Nigeria, fewer than 10% of recipients of climate-smart agricultural training are female (UN Women, 2022).
DISCUSSIONS
This section critically examines the implications of the findings presented earlier and compares them with
established literature. It explores why certain regions and populations are more affected by climate change,
how this reinforces structural inequality, and what it means for the broader goal of sustainable development
across the African continent.
Climate Vulnerability and Economic Injustice
As shown in the findings, the most climate-vulnerable countries in Africa such as Chad, Niger, and
Mozambique are also some of the world’s poorest, least industrialized, and most politically fragile. This
mirrors what Roberts and Parks (2007) describe as “the double injustice” of climate change: nations and
populations who contributed least to the problem are suffering the most, with the fewest resources to respond.
For instance, Somalia’s repeated droughts and floods have resulted in the internal displacement of over 1
million people annually (FAO, 2023). Yet Somalia’s per capita carbon emissions are among the lowest in the
world. These disparities underscore the failure of global climate frameworks to address historical emissions or
compensate for “loss and damage” suffered by countries with weak adaptive capacity.
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This finding aligns with the Climate Justice Theory, which demands a redistributive approach to climate
financing - one that goes beyond mitigation and includes reparations, support for displaced persons, and access
to technology for low-income nations.
Unequal Impacts Within Countries
Climate change does not only divide countries it divides communities within countries. As the gender-based
access chart shows, women have significantly lower access to land ownership, irrigation systems, and climate
finance mechanisms. This is not just a gender gap — it is a development trap, where structural exclusion from
resources prevents women from building resilience, even though they form the backbone of rural food
production (UN Women, 2022).
Similarly, the urban-rural divide is stark. In Nigeria, climate-induced floods primarily devastate low-income
informal settlements with poor drainage and no insurance, while wealthier areas recover faster or avoid
damage altogether. This reflects what Pelling and Wisner (2009) term “differential vulnerability,” where
wealth, geography, and social status determine the ability to prepare for, absorb, and recover from
environmental shocks.
Uneven Development and Adaptive Capacity
One of the most striking insights from the findings is the vast gap in adaptation spending across African
nations. South Africa, with its diversified economy and stronger institutions, can afford over $1 billion in
annual climate adaptation. In contrast, Chad and Niger spend less than $60 million amounts insufficient even
for short-term disaster response, let alone long-term climate planning.
This disparity feeds into a cycle of uneven development:
Poorer countries face more frequent and intense climate shocks.
They lack resources to invest in resilience.
Shocks lead to economic decline and displacement.
The weakened economy reduces future adaptive capacity.
This cycle is supported by Dependency Theory, which emphasizes how the global economic system traps
poorer nations in reactive positions. Because African countries rely heavily on donor financing and imports for
climate technologies, they remain vulnerable to both external shocks and internal stagnation (Bond, 2012).
Comparison with Other Studies
A comparison with studies from Asia and Latin America shows that while climate inequality is a global issue,
it is most extreme in Africa due to the triple burden of:
High ecological exposure (such as Sahel desertification),
Limited infrastructure and human capital, and
Weak political and financial institutions.
According to the IPCC (2022), Africa will require at least $50 billion annually in adaptation funds by 2050, yet
current international commitments fall far below that figure. In Latin America, countries like Brazil and Chile
have higher access to domestic climate finance due to stronger financial markets — a luxury that most African
countries do not have.
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The Role of Governance and Policy Gaps
Even where climate funds exist, weak governance undermines their effective use. Corruption, poor planning,
and lack of local involvement often result in projects that fail to serve the most vulnerable. For instance, a
World Bank-funded irrigation project in Mali was suspended after reports showed that land access was limited
to elites and ex-government officials (World Bank, 2021).
This supports the argument that climate solutions must be inclusive, transparent, and community-led. A top-
down technocratic approach will only widen the inequality gap and further marginalize already excluded
groups.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the analysis of the findings and discussions, this section outlines practical, policy-oriented, and
community-driven recommendations to address the overlapping crises of climate change, inequality, and
uneven development in Africa.
Strengthening Local Climate Adaptation Systems
Local adaptation should be the foundation of climate resilience in Africa. Most African communities affected
by floods, droughts, and other climate stressors live in rural or peri-urban areas where national governments
have limited presence. Decentralizing climate funds to empower local councils and municipalities to
implement context-specific solutions is therefore recommended.
Reformation of Climate Financing Architecture
The current climate financing structure disadvantages African nations. Most funds are tied to complex
procedures, loans instead of grants, and high co-financing requirements that poorer nations cannot meet.
Pushing for climate loss and damage compensation at COP negotiations, especially for countries with the least
emissions.
Strengthening Regional Climate Cooperation
Since climate change crosses borders, African countries need strong continental and sub-regional partnerships
to manage shared ecosystems like the Sahel, Congo Basin, and Lake Chad.
Specifically:
Revive and fund regional climate initiatives under bodies like the African Union and ECOWAS.
Support cross-border water and forest management agreements.
Coordinate data sharing and joint response strategies for early warning and crisis relief.
For Example, The Great Green Wall Initiative, if fully implemented, could restore 100 million hectares of
degraded land across 11 countries in the Sahel (UNCCD, 2022).
Promoting Climate Education and Youth Engagement
Youth make up over 60% of Africa’s population and will live longest with the consequences of climate
inaction. Yet, many are excluded from policy spaces and lack access to climate education. To capitalize on this
youthful population, this study recommends:
Integrating climate science into school curricula across all levels of education.
Supporting youth-led innovation and advocacy through climate grants, hackathons, and leadership programs.
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Creating national youth climate councils to influence environmental policymaking.
In Senegal for example, youth-led groups are using drone technology for mangrove reforestation and are
recognized in municipal development plans (UNDP, 2021).
Enhancing Transparency and Accountability in Climate Projects
Many climate adaptation projects in Africa fail not due to poor planning, but because of corruption, elite
capture, and exclusion of target beneficiaries. To address these issues, this study recommends:
Implement social accountability tools like citizen scorecards and participatory budgeting.
Make climate spending reports public and easily accessible in local languages.
Empower watchdog NGOs and community monitors to track project implementation.
CONCLUSION
Climate change is not just an environmental crisis in Africa; it is a developmental emergency that exposes and
exacerbates deeply rooted structural inequalities. This paper has examined how climate change intersects with
socio-economic disparities to produce uneven patterns of development across the continent. The findings
clearly show that while Africa contributes the least to global greenhouse gas emissions, it is among the most
severely impacted — and those most affected are often the poorest, most marginalized, and least equipped to
respond.
Through case studies and data from different regions, the evidence reveals a vicious cycle: climate change
deepens inequality, and inequality in turn weakens the capacity of populations to adapt or recover from
environmental shocks. Women, rural farmers, displaced persons, and youth are disproportionately affected,
facing higher exposure to risks and lower access to resources like land, finance, and decision-making
platforms.
The charts presented — on population affected by major climate events and gender disparities in access to
climate resources — further highlight the extent of this imbalance. These visual representations demonstrate
not only the scale of human suffering, but also the structural neglect in climate response systems. Moreover,
the methodological analysis has shown that most national strategies remain top-down, donor-dependent, and
urban-focused, failing to integrate local realities or equitable distribution mechanisms.
However, this crisis also presents a unique opportunity. By adopting a justice-based approach to climate
governance — one that prioritizes vulnerable populations, invests in community resilience, reforms financing
systems, and promotes inclusive development — African nations can transform this threat into a catalyst for
sustainable growth. The recommendations outlined in this paper offer concrete steps forward, grounded in both
local experience and global best practices.
For Africa to truly overcome the challenges posed by climate change, efforts must be systemic, sustained, and
people-centered. It is not enough to build infrastructure; the continent must build equity. It is not enough to
adapt to climate shocks; it must transform its socio-political and economic foundations. Only through such
integrated, inclusive strategies can Africa achieve the vision of climate-resilient and just development for all its
people.
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