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Significance of Reading Instructions for Language Improvement in
Children with Down Syndrome
Isuri Kathriarachchi
ESOL College (Pvt.) Ltd; The Open University of Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka
DOI: https://doi.org/10.51244/IJRSI.2025.120800302
Received: 28 Aug 2025; Accepted: 03 Sep 2025; Published: 07 October 2025
ABSTRACT
This paper explores the significance of reading instructions for language improvement in children with Down
syndrome (DS). Reading is not only a foundational literacy skill but also a pathway to oral language
development in children with DS, who often experience deficits in phonological awareness (PA) and oral
language acquisition. The objectives of this review were to: (1) identify the constraints faced by children with
DS in their reading and language development, and (2) examine the most effective instructional strategies to
improve their reading comprehension and language skills. Secondary data was collected through a literature
review of peer-reviewed journal articles and research studies from Macquarie University library and Google
Scholar databases. Findings indicate that constraints include poor phonological development, deficits in
expressive language, and lack of teacher preparedness. However, targeted phonics-based instruction, silent
reading, family-mediated interventions, and vocabulary development strategies have proven effective in
enhancing PA, reading comprehension, and oral language outcomes. The paper concludes that while progress
has been made in developing evidence-based interventions, further longitudinal and cross-cultural research is
required to strengthen literacy practices for children with DS.
Keywords:
Down syndrome, Reading instruction, Language development, Phonological awareness.
INTRODUCTION
Reading is a crucial aspect of human communication and as Schnorr (2011) claims reading engagement allows
for a wider and more profound understanding of the world we live in (as cited in Cologon, 2013, p. 132). As
the writer asserts several elements are significant to the development of reading. These include letter and word
recognition, the decoding of unfamiliar words, awareness of letter-sound rules, reading for meaning and
reading comprehension skills. It is through a combination of these features that the reading systems are
established (Schnorr, 2011 as cited in Cologon, 2013 p. 132). The reading system can be described through
dual-route theory of reading (Coltheart, 2006).
Language acquisition and reading can be regarded as two topics that are strongly intertwined in children’s
development. For the majority of children, the development of speaking skills commences earlier than
reading skills and thus, the relationship between language improvement and reading only begins to be
reciprocal once reading development starts (Cologon, 2013, p. 133). Nonetheless, Cologon (2013) states that
for many children with Down syndrome reading can create a different path to oral language or language
development through which children begin to read words as opposed to ascertaining them orally and thus
those words start to appear in their expressive vocabulary (p. 133).
It has been suggested that Down Syndrome (DS) is the most prevalent biological cause of intellectual
disability; it affects thousands of lives in the United Kingdom (Laws, Brown & Main, 2016). A majority of the
children with DS become skilled at reading despite deficiencies in oral language. With regards to reading
comprehension, Cain and Oakhill (2006, 2007 as cited in Laws, Brown & Main, 2016) put forward the notion
that both printed word recognition and listening comprehension skills can contribute to the success of reading
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comprehension as these abilities occupy complex cognitive-linguistic and meta-linguistic skills. However,
because of phonological impairments, there is a chance that readers with DS might depend heavily on visual
processing to connect printed words straight to meaning (Laws, Brown & Main, 2016). In addition to these,
Cologon, Cupples & Wyver (2011) comment that children with DS primarily are given reading instructions
founded on sight-word or whole-word approach which requires training to identify the individual words
presented as wholes (p. 111). Although there still exist uncertainties in relation to the link between phonics
instruction and its benefits for children with Down syndrome, Cologon, Cupples and Wyver (2011) state that
phonics instructions can lead improvements in PA, word reading ability for trained words and significant
developments in the capability to read nonwords and words (p. 114).
It is in light of this that this review paper aims to discuss the significance of reading instructions for language
improvement in children with Down syndrome. In relation to the topic, the introductory part of this paper
provides some background to the research and introduces the two research questions that the discussion is
based on. The paper also provides insight into the method utilized in selecting the articles. Subsequently, it
will explore the findings from the articles. Finally, the conclusion that arrived from the discussion will be
presented.
The Current Review
In this current review paper two research questions were addressed:
1. What constraints are associated with the topic of children with Down syndrome in relation to their
reading and language development?
2. What are the most prominent reading instruction strategies that can be used to help children with
Down syndrome to improve their reading comprehension?
METHODOLOGY
This study employed a qualitative secondary research design based on a systematic literature review. Data
sources included peer-reviewed journal articles accessed through the Macquarie University library and Google
Scholar. Keywords used in the search included “Down syndrome,” “reading instruction,” and “language
development.”
Data collection process: Articles were screened for relevance, with priority given to studies directly addressing
the relationship between reading interventions and language development in children with DS. A total of nine
key studies were analyzed.
Analysis methods: Content analysis was employed to extract themes related to (1) constraints in reading and
language development, and (2) effective instructional strategies. Findings were synthesized under these
thematic areas.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In order to have a better understanding, the results are presented and discussed under the two main research
questions that were put forward for the purpose of this review paper.
What constraints are associated with the topic of children with Down syndrome in relation to their reading and
language development?
The topic of reading development in relation to children with disabilities, especially children with Down
syndrome has been debated for decades. Results obtained by Cossu, Rossini and Marshall (1993) in their
research on phonemic awareness (PA) and literacy in children with Down syndrome became controversial.
According to the researchers, phonological failure in Down syndrome children has not prevented them from
obtaining reading skills compared to the levels of normal children. However, they would have obtained the
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skill faster if they had possessed sufficient PA. The authors state that the manner in which children with Down
syndrome learn to read is different in comparison to normal children and thus, it could be assumed that their
method of learning does not entail phonetic segmentation ([Cossu et al., 1993]). Morton and Frith (1993) put
forward contrasting views stating that Cossu et al. (1993) should not make such claims as their research was
based only on one particular group of children. The fact that two groups of researchers claim different views
on the similar topic makes it controversial and thus can be deemed as a constraint since alternate approaches
on reading development in children with DS have been theorized with more accuracy and representation.
The convergent skills model of reading development (Vellutino, Tumner, Jaccard, & Chen, 2007) illustrates
the dissimilarities in the relational contribution of word identification and language understanding to reading
comprehension at diverse levels of reading development (as cited in Laws, Brown & Main, 2016). For the
initial readers, skills of word identification and phonological abilities are much more significant. Laws, Brown
and Main (2016) when referring to the children with DS in the United Kingdom state that while they learn to
recognize the words in schools, they find it difficult to complete comprehension tests especially when they are
required to respond verbally. The fact that the oral language skills of the readers of DS are generally lower
indicates that listening comprehension is considered as one of the major obstacles to reading in children with
DS (Laws, Brown & Main, 2016). The language impairments in DS encompass the features of deficiencies in
phonology and comprehensive vocabulary knowledge. Most children with DS can also be categorized as
having poor comprehension skills and reading accuracy especially between the ages of four and a half to
fourteen. In addition, children with DS also have deficiencies in phonological improvement resulting in
difficulties in producing speech and insufficient PA (Laws, Brown & Main, 2016).
Cologon (2013) argues that one of the other constraints that children with DS encounter is that there are no
teachers who possess satisfactory information about effective literacy instruction to help them (p. 131). As he
points out the majority of parents lack information on learning abilities and sometimes incorrect and
contradictory information regarding literacy instruction for children with DS. With reference to a research
carried out in New South Wales, Australia containing 188 pre-service early childhood teachers, Cologon
(2013) claims that teachers lacked both knowledge and confidence in teaching children with disabilities (p.
131). It is being discovered that children with DS also have a distinct drawback in completing tasks that
demand them to exercise and remember auditory information. It has been revealed that children with DS
encounter this issue more compared to children with other intellectual disabilities (Cupples & Iacono, 2002, p.
550). As Cupples & Iacono (2002) mention, auditory and memory deficiencies can be a clear limitation if
reading instruction is centered on improving phonic skills such as phoneme blending (p. 550). In topics
concerning language and speech, children with DS show significant weakness in expressive language and their
communication skills do not fully develop until later in life (Lemons, King, Davidson, Puranik, Al Otaiba, &
Fidler, 2018). For a lot of children with DS, intelligibility is diminished due to difficulty in speech articulation.
These delays indicate that reading instruction does not have to include spoken response in order to be
understood ([Lemons et al., 2018]).
What are the most prominent reading instruction strategies that can be used to help children with Down
syndrome to improve their reading comprehension/language improvement?
In relation to the reading strategies that could be utilized to help children with DS to improve language skills,
Cologon, Cupples and Wyver (2011) assert that targeted reading instruction can be enabled to help develop
PA, thereby improving reading ability (p. 125). They arrived at this assertion after examining the results of
their study on the effects of targeted reading instruction on children with DS. The participants of the study
displayed improved development of PA, word comprehension, phonic decoding skills, and short-passage
comprehension skills after ten sessions of reading interventions demonstrating that targeted reading
instructions are indeed effective (Cologon, Cupples & Wyver, 2011, p. 125). The authors further comment on
the results of the study by stating that the outcome of the reading intervention revealed that using targeted
instruction to improve PA and phonic decoding skills can lead to language development in children with DS.
In addition, evidence of their study (Cologon, Cupples & Wyver, 2011) allowed them to realize that children
with DS can gain from the introduction to phonics instruction before being presented with a sight-word
vocabulary. After carrying out the study Cologon, Cupples and Wyver (2011) noticed that all the participants
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displayed noteworthy developments in PA which suggested that children with DS can use phonics-based
instruction before the introduction of a significant sight-word vocabulary (p. 126). The writers also state that
by utilizing effective targeted reading instructions, children with DS have the possibility of improving
alphabetic reading skills and higher levels of PA that can subsequently help in the development of their
phonic decoding abilities (Cologon, Cupples & Wyver, 2011, p. 126).
The method of silent reading is also considered productive in facilitating better comprehension skills than oral
reading for children with DS because prominence is placed on pronunciation rather than the meaning in oral
reading (Halladay, 2012 as cited in Cologon, 2013, p. 134). Cologon (2013) declares that activities based on
silent reading would be helpful for children with DS and this method could aid in both reading and speech
development (p.134). In advocating the method of silent reading Cologon (2013) put forward several
strategies that could be utilized in a language development class for children with DS. One prominent strategy
would be to encourage students to use non-verbal communication in class by introducing them to sign
language and integrate signs for keywords in daily activities. Another strategy would be to use card games in
class such as ‘memory’ with word cards or letters/letter sounds or building sentence with words/letters.
Cologon (2013) also mentions that teachers should attempt to build written stories as visual prompts when
children want to share their experiences with their parents or when they want to share their home experiences
in school (p. 134). In relation to using visual prompts in class, Cologon (2013) states that visual information
could be linked to auditory information. Reading instruction aiming phonological and phoneme awareness and
phonic decoding skills must connect to support learning. Moreover, learning would be more effective if the
teachers could link learning experiences to known concepts. They could do so by linking the words to
meaning when focusing on phonological and phoneme awareness as it will help holistic literacy development.
Research conducted on children with DS displayed that they have the ability to understand what they read
(Cologon, 2013, p. 142). Thus, Cologon (2013) claims that children with DS need continuous help in order to
develop their reading and listening comprehension. She also noted that teachers need to carefully reflect on the
approach they take when engaging with students in terms of reading comprehension. Engaging through
meaningful experiences, teaching question words such as who, what, how, where, when, and why and making
links to meaning are a few of the strategies that teachers can employ in class (Cologon, 2013, p. 142).
Cologon (2013) also acknowledges the significant role of PA in developing reading and language skills in
children with DS. Referring to several reviews (National Inquiry into the Teaching of Literacy in Australia
(DEST, 2005), USA (NICHHD, 2000) and Rose (2006)) claims that including instructions that focuses on
helping children to improve PA and phonic decoding skills is necessary for both reading and language
development (Cologon, 2013, p. 135). Conveying a similar notion Cupples & Iacono (2002) state that clear
instruction on PA can enable children with DS in improving reading and language developments (p. 552).
Cupples and Iacono (2002) assert that children with DS can be taught to read monosyllabic English words
with regular spelling-to-sound correspondences by utilizing a structured intervention program which is based
on learning to pronounce words as wholes, combine words onsets and rimes (p. 568). Furthermore, they state
that instruction in alphabetic reading can improve PA skills in children with DS (Cupples & Iacono, 2002, p.
568).
O'Toole, Lee, Gibbon, van Bysterveldt, Conway and Hart (2018) claim that individualized vocabulary and
language targeting should be incorporated into interventions mainly due to the fact that parents of children
with DS might need advice in choosing developmentally proper target vocabulary for their children as well as
training on how to use them. They mention that the majority of language interventions come from mainstream
Western cultures where parents are extremely motivated to help their children with language development. In
this case, family members should be included in the interventions and guide them on how to play and interact
with their children and should take into consideration how language goals could be based on what is
significant to the family (O'[Toole et al., 2018]).
It has been determined that the best method for teaching children with DS new vocabulary is to link a word
with a recognizable and imageable object (Lemons, King, Davidson, Puranik, Al Otaiba, Fulmer, & Fidler,
2017). Lemons et al. (2017) state that interventionists should be careful when providing suitable models for
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correct articulation and should not punish students for any articulation errors. In addition instructions should
be given to show the meanings of new words by using concrete representation and letting students practice
reading in meaningful context as a way to improve their language development (p. 70). Providing visual
representation of the verbal information has been considered significant and useful to children with DS as
opposed to training them to orally rehearse the information (Jarrold, Baddeley, & Phillips, 1999 as cited in
[Lemons et al., 2017]).
Studies published from 2020 onwards provide new insights into reading instruction for children with DS.
Næss et al. (2020) conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis and concluded that children with DS
benefit significantly from targeted language interventions, particularly when phonological awareness and
reading activities are integrated. This study highlights that combining reading-focused instruction with broader
language intervention yields stronger improvements than isolated approaches.
Alt, Hogan, and Green (2021) examined reading and listening comprehension in individuals with DS. Their
findings emphasize that decoding and vocabulary knowledge are critical predictors of comprehension. The
study suggests that reading interventions must incorporate explicit vocabulary teaching and listening
comprehension tasks, reinforcing the reciprocal relationship between oral and written language. Morra et al.
(2022) reviewed intervention studies and confirmed that phonics-based approaches, phonological awareness
activities, and shared reading consistently improve language outcomes in DS populations. Their analysis
provides further evidence that multi-component interventions addressing decoding and meaning
simultaneously are most effective.
Wood et al. (2022) piloted the ABRACADABRA literacy program, a technology-supported intervention that
combines phonics, fluency, and comprehension. The study found promising improvements in early literacy
skills among children with DS, demonstrating the potential of digital tools to make literacy interventions more
engaging and accessible. Jeremić et al. (2023) explored shared book reading as a language intervention. Their
mini-review demonstrates that parent–child shared reading fosters vocabulary growth, comprehension, and
social communication skills. They emphasize the role of parents as co-educators and recommend structured
training for parents to maximize outcomes.
Foster et al. (2024) investigated retrieval practice in word learning for children with DS. Results showed that
incorporating recall activities into vocabulary instruction significantly boosts retention and generalization.
This suggests that literacy interventions should go beyond recognition to include active retrieval exercises.
Burgoyne et al. (2023) tested the feasibility of the PACT-DS program, a parent-delivered early language
intervention. Findings reveal that parent-mediated, book-based language support is not only practical but also
effective, highlighting the importance of empowering families to contribute to their child’s literacy
development. Pagnamenta et al. (2022, 2024) evaluated the Digital Down Syndrome LanguagePlus (DSL+)
program, a school-delivered, vocabulary-focused intervention. Their results show that digital multimedia
materials integrated into reading instruction significantly enhance vocabulary acquisition and oral language
skills, offering scalable solutions for classrooms.
Hustad et al. (2024) reported on a case study using augmentative and alternative communication (AAC)
systems to embed decoding instruction. The study demonstrates that children with DS can benefit from
literacy-focused AAC features, reinforcing the idea that reading instruction can be integrated with
communication support technologies.
Together, these recent studies confirm that reading instruction for children with DS must be multi-faceted,
integrating phonics, vocabulary, comprehension, technology, parental involvement, and retrieval-based
learning. They also demonstrate the potential of digital and AAC tools to broaden the accessibility and impact
of interventions.
CONCLUSION
This review demonstrates that while children with DS face persistent constraints, including deficits in
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phonological awareness, expressive language, and comprehension, along with insufficient teacher preparation,
recent research confirms that these challenges can be effectively mitigated through targeted, multi-faceted
reading instruction. Classic studies emphasized the role of phonics, vocabulary, and comprehension-focused
approaches, while newer evidence reinforces these findings and expands on them by introducing technology-
based tools, retrieval-based strategies, and parent-mediated interventions. Shared book reading and
vocabulary- focused activities have been shown to strengthen both oral and written language, while digital and
AAC- supported programs extend literacy opportunities to diverse learning contexts. Taken together, the
evidence indicates that effective reading instruction for children with DS is not a singular method but a layered
approach that combines phonological training, visual supports, comprehension strategies, and family
involvement. Future progress will depend on refining these practices, ensuring they are culturally adaptable,
and embedding them into inclusive educational frameworks.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Practical Implications for Educators: Teacher training should prioritize evidence-based, multi-component
literacy instruction for children with DS. These include explicit phonics and vocabulary teaching,
comprehension-focused activities, use of visual and retrieval-based strategies, and integration of digital tools.
Policy Suggestions: Educational policies should guarantee access to specialized literacy interventions,
technology-based supports, and inclusive resources. Schools should also promote structured opportunities
for parent engagement in reading instruction.
Future Research Directions: Longitudinal studies are needed to examine the sustained effects of literacy
interventions across different developmental stages. Future research should also investigate the adaptability of
interventions in cross-cultural contexts, the integration of AAC features for literacy development, and the
long- term impact of digital and family-mediated programs on language and reading outcomes.
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