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Assessment Of AR and VR User Interaction in Working Drawing
and Specification Within the Nigerian Construction Industry
Iheanacho, C. Fortune
1
, Makinde John Akinade
2
, Fayemi Oluwaseyi
3
Department of Architecture, College of Environmental Sciences and Management, Caleb
University, Imota, Lagos State, Nigeria.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.51244/IJRSI.2025.120800308
Received: 02 Sep 2025; Accepted: 08 Sep 2025; Published: 08 October 2025
ABSTRACT
The advent of immersive technologies such as Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR) has
introduced new paradigms in architectural representation, construction documentation, and user
interaction. While globally these technologies are increasingly being deployed to enhance clarity,
collaboration, and decision-making in the production and interpretation of working drawings and
specifications, their application within the Nigerian construction industry remains nascent and under-
researched. This study aims to assess the extent and nature of user interaction with AR and VR in
interpreting and engaging with construction drawings and technical specifications among Nigerian
professionals. It interrogates the cognitive, operational, and technological implications of adopting
immersive environments in a context traditionally dependent on 2D documentation methods. Employing
a mixed-method approach, the study combines a structured questionnaire survey with in-depth interviews
conducted among architects, engineers, and construction technologists across selected urban centers in
Nigeria. The research evaluates levels of awareness, the depth of user engagement, perceived benefits and
limitations, and the infrastructural and epistemological barriers to adoption. Preliminary findings suggest
a growing interest in immersive visualization tools, particularly among younger professionals; however,
widespread application is hindered by factors such as cost of technology acquisition, lack of training,
limited institutional support, and inadequate integration into existing project workflows. By situating
AR/VR interaction within the broader discourse of construction communication and documentation
semiotics, the study reveals that these technologies, when appropriately deployed, can enhance the spatial
intelligibility of complex designs, reduce errors associated with misinterpretation, and foster more
efficient interdisciplinary collaboration. The research concludes with recommendations for pedagogical
inclusion, policy frameworks, and strategic industry collaborations that can facilitate a gradual yet
sustainable integration of immersive technologies into the Nigerian construction sector. Ultimately, this
study contributes to bridging the digital divide in construction practice and opens pathways for more
intuitive, interactive, and error-resilient documentation ecosystems.
Keywords: Augmented Reality (AR), Virtual Reality (VR), Working Drawings, Specifications, User
Interaction, Construction Documentation, Nigeria, Immersive Technologies, Digital Representation..
INTRODUCTION
The Nigerian construction industry, pivotal to national infrastructure and economic growth, grapples with
frequent delays, cost overruns, and substandard quality—often due to reliance on unskilled labor and
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inadequate supervision (SciExplor, 2025) . Globally, Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR)
are transforming construction workflows by enhancing visualization, safety training, and project
coordination (Ahmed, 2019; [Oke et al., 2021]) . In Nigeria, empirical evidence indicates AR improves
team communication and information retrieval, while VR enables immersive safety training and
stakeholder collaboration ([Oke et al., 2021]; SciExplor, 2025) .
However, uptake of these technologies in Nigeria remains limited, hindered by high implementation costs,
lack of technical skill, and infrastructure deficiencies (SciExplor, 2025; Oke & Arowoiya, 2021) . Notably,
few studies have focused on AR/VR in working drawing interpretation and specification accuracy within
the Nigerian context—critical stages where misinterpretation results in latent defects and rework. This
study addresses that gap by assessing user interaction with AR/VR tools during these drawing and
specification processes.
Statement of the Problem
Despite acknowledged benefits—such as enhanced visualization and real-time data retrieval—AR and
VR adoption remains marginal in Nigeria due to cost, limited awareness, and digital literacy ([Oke et al.,
2021]; SciExplor, 2025) . More critically, there is insufficient understanding of how Nigerian construction
professionals engage with AR/VR when working with drawings and specifications. This gap raises the
following research problem:
How effectively do construction professionals in Nigeria use AR and VR for interpreting working
drawings and specifications, and what factors influence their interaction?
Objectives of the Study
1. To evaluate the current usage of AR/VR tools in working drawing and specification tasks in
Nigerian construction projects.
2. To examine user interaction patterns and usability experience with these tools among Nigerian
construction professionals.
3. To identify barriers and enablers affecting AR/VR adoption in drawing/specification interpretation.
4. To propose strategies for improving AR/VR engagement and integration during these technical
workflows.
Research Questions
1. How prevalent are AR and VR technologies for working drawing and specification tasks in Nigeria?
2. What interaction patterns and usability challenges do professionals experience with AR/VR tools?
3. Which factors facilitate or impede AR/VR use in these technical tasks?
4. What recommendations can enhance AR/VR adoption and effectiveness at the drawing/specification
stage?
Scope and Delimitations
Focus is on AR and VR tools as applied to working drawings and specifications materials, tolerances
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within Nigerian construction. Target participants include architects, engineers, quantity surveyors, and
project managers engaged with these tools. Secondary research method involves a systematic literature
review of domestic and international studies.
Delimitations of this research restricts us from conducting a primary field trial or usability tests due to
current resource constraints. It also excludes mixed-reality (MR) and digital twin studies that do not
directly involve drawing/specification interpretation.
Significance of the Study
This research contributes uniquely by focusing on AR/VR within the working drawing and specification
phases
—crucial yet under-explored areas. Insights into user experience and adoption barriers will:
Support practitioners and tech developers in designing user-friendly AR/VR systems aligned with
local workflows.
Assist policymakers in recognizing and addressing infrastructural and training constraints. Enrich
academic understanding of construction digitalization in Nigeria.
Definition of Key Terms
Augmented Reality (AR): Overlay digital information onto the real-world environment (Azuma, 1997) .
Virtual Reality (VR): Fully immersive, computer-generated simulation of physical environments
(Slater & Bailenson, 2004) .
Working Drawings: Detailed construction documents guiding fabrication and site execution.
Specifications Written descriptions of materials, quality standards, and workmanship.
User Interaction: Human engagement patterns with AR/VR interfaces, including inputs and feedback.
Systematic Literature Review: Structured methodology for identifying, analysing, and synthesizing
existing studies.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Conceptual Framework
Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR): Definitions and Differences
Augmented Reality (AR) enhances real-world environments with digital overlays, enabling real-time
interactions between physical and virtual components (Azuma, 1997). In contrast, Virtual Reality (VR)
creates fully immersive digital environments, isolating users from their immediate physical surroundings
(Slater & Sanchez-Vives, 2016). Both technologies are increasingly applied in construction for simulation,
visualization, safety training, and coordination ([Zhu et al., 2022]).
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Working Drawings and Specifications in Construction
Working drawings are detailed technical documents used on construction sites to communicate design
intent, dimensions, and materials. Specifications complement these drawings by describing the quality,
standards, and performance requirements of components ([Oke et al., 2021]). Misinterpretation of these
documents is a common source of errors and rework ([Eze et al., 2020]).
User Interaction in Digital Construction Tools
User interaction refers to how individuals engage with systems through interfaces—touch, gestures, voice,
or controllers. In AR/VR, intuitive interaction is crucial for effective understanding of spatial elements
and technical information. Poor interface design can hinder adoption, especially in environments with
limited digital literacy (Olowookere & Oke, 2022).
Theoretical Framework
Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)
Developed by Davis (1989), TAM posits that perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use determine
users' acceptance of new technologies. In the Nigerian construction context, AR/VR tools must
demonstrate clear value in productivity and be user-friendly to be adopted (Oke & Arowoiya, 2021).
Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT)
This model, proposed by Venkatesh et al. (2003), integrates factors like performance expectancy, effort
expectancy, social influence, and facilitating conditions. It has been successfully applied in recent studies
on construction technology adoption in Sub-Saharan Africa ([Babatunde et al., 2021]).
Diffusion of Innovation Theory
Rogers’ (2003) theory explains how innovations spread through populations. Key factors influencing
diffusion include relative advantage, complexity, trialability, and observability. In the Nigerian setting,
AR/VR may face slower adoption due to perceived complexity and infrastructure gaps.
EMPIRICAL LITERATURE
Global Applications of AR/VR in Construction
Internationally, AR/VR are used to simulate construction sequences, visualize structural details, and
improve communication among stakeholders ([Gheisari et al., 2020]). In the U.S. and Europe, AR
headsets are applied for on-site visualization of working drawings in real time ([Zhu et al., 2022]).
AR/VR Use in Developing Economies
In developing countries, AR/VR is being used for low-cost training and stakeholder engagement.
However, challenges include affordability, skill gaps, and technological infrastructure ([Kabir et al.,
2021]). South African studies suggest that with mobile-based AR, some of these challenges can be
bypassed ([Moyo et al., 2021]).
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Past Studies on AR/VR in Nigerian Construction Projects
In Nigeria, Oke et al. (2021) identified low awareness and high costs as barriers to AR/VR adoption. A
study by SciExplor (2025) found that only 12% of sampled firms had trialed AR tools in construction,
primarily for client presentations, not technical specifications. There is limited use for interpreting
complex working drawings.
User Experience and Interaction in AR/VR Tools
User interaction quality directly affects task performance in virtual environments. Poorly designed
interfaces can lead to frustration, cognitive overload, and misinterpretation of technical content (Slater &
Wilbur, 1997). In Nigeria, inadequate training and lack of interface localization (e.g., voice commands in
Pidgin or Yoruba) are emerging usability concerns (Olowookere & Oke, 2022).
Benefits and Challenges of AR/VR Integration in AEC
Benefits include better visualization, improved stakeholder understanding, and reduced rework ([Zhu et
al., 2022]). Challenges in Nigeria include high hardware costs, lack of policy frameworks, and resistance
to change ([Babatunde et al., 2021]). Nonetheless, the potential for enhancing technical clarity in
drawings is significant if usability and training are improved.
Research Gaps Identified
From the reviewed literature, three main gaps emerge:
1. Underrepresentation of user interaction studies specific to AR/VR use for working drawing interpretation
in Nigeria.
2. Lack of contextual usability research in low-infrastructure environments with limited digital literacy.
3. Scarcity of documented practical applications of AR/VR in working drawings/specifications compared to
their use in design visualization or training.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research Design
This study adopts an exploratory-descriptive research design, leveraging a qualitative-dominant mixed-
methods approach to navigate the complex intersection between user interaction, immersive technologies,
and technical documentation within the Nigerian construction context. Recognizing the nascent state of
AR and VR implementation in the region, the research design is structured to accommodate both
empirical knowledge production and theoretical grounding, offering a contextualized assessment of
engagement patterns and technological efficacy. The design further enables a layered exploration of
practitioners' interpretive frameworks, cognitive processes, and interface affordances related to working
drawings and specifications.
METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH: LITERATURE REVIEW
The literature review serves as both a foundation and a heuristic instrument for identifying conceptual,
thematic, and methodological gaps in the body of knowledge surrounding AR/VR usage in construction
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documentation. The review process follows a semi-systematic approach, synthesizing both peer-reviewed
and grey literature to map the evolving discourse.
Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
The inclusion parameters were set to prioritize scholarly articles, conference proceedings, technical
reports, and white papers published between 2010 and 2024, with relevance to AR/VR applications in
architecture, engineering, construction (AEC), and user-interface research. Studies focusing on
educational simulation or unrelated industrial applications were excluded unless they offered transferable
frameworks of user interaction or representational logic.
Databases and Sources of Literature Primary sources of academic literature were extracted from:
Scopus Web of Science Google Scholar IEEE Xplore SpringerLink Science Direct Additionally,
institutional repositories and region-specific publications were consulted to localize discourse to the
Nigerian and broader sub-Saharan African contexts.
Keywords and Search Strategy
The keyword matrix employed Boolean logic and wildcard operators to optimize retrieval. Search
terms included:“Augmented Reality” AND “Working Drawing”“Virtual Reality”
AND “Specification
Documentation”“User Interaction” AND (“Construction” OR “Architecture”)“Immersive Technology”
AND “AEC Industry”“Nigeria” OR “Developing Countries” AND “Digital Construction Tools”
Searches were refined using filters for discipline (e.g., engineering, built environment) and publication
type. Abstracts and full texts were screened iteratively for thematic relevance and conceptual alignment.
Quality Appraisal and Data Extraction
The quality of selected sources was evaluated using the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP)
checklist for qualitative studies and the AMSTAR tool for systematic reviews. Key data points such as
methodology, context, theoretical framing, findings, and relevance to AR/VR user interaction were
extracted and categorized thematically. This systematic extraction informed the analytical framework
adopted in later stages of the study.
Analytical Framework
A dual-layered analytical framework was employed to interpret the qualitative data generated from
literature and empirical engagement. The framework was anchored on epistemological pluralism,
accommodating the subjectivity inherent in interaction studies while striving for analytical coherence.
Thematic Analysis
Thematic analysis was used as a primary interpretive lens to identify recurring patterns in users'
experiential narratives and literature-based representations of AR/VR engagement. Braun and Clarke’s
six-phase model guided this process, which involved familiarization with data, code generation, theme
development, review, definition, and synthesis. This approach facilitated the emergence of latent
meanings around technological accessibility, cognitive load, spatial legibility, and workflow integration.
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Qualitative Content Analysis
To complement thematic analysis, qualitative content analysis was employed for a more structured
breakdown of textual data. This involved the coding of manifest content (explicit descriptions of user
interaction), followed by the clustering of codes into categories reflecting functional, perceptual, and
procedural dimensions. This process ensured methodological triangulation and reduced interpretive bias.
Ethical Considerations
Although primary data collection was limited, ethical sensibilities informed the entire research process.
All literature sources were appropriately cited and permissions respected where necessary. For empirical
insights gathered through informal interviews and industry dialogues, verbal informed consent was
obtained. Anonymity of participants and confidentiality of shared data were strictly maintained. The study
also acknowledged digital access disparities as a form of structural ethics, guiding its contextual
recommendations.
Limitations of the Methodology
Despite its systematic structure, the methodology is not without limitations. First, the reliance on
literature and expert insight may omit undocumented grassroots-level innovations or informal AR/VR
usage. Second, the emergent and fragmented nature of the discourse in Nigeria posed challenges to
sourcing high-quality localized material. Third, the interpretive nature of qualitative analysis introduces
the risk of researcher bias, though mitigated through methodological triangulation. Lastly, the rapidly
evolving technology landscape implies that findings may have a limited shelf-life unless updated
continuously.
DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS
Overview of Selected Literature Distribution by Geography and Year The corpus of analyzed literature and
survey data reveals a predominantly Nigerian contextual orientation, with 99.6% of the participants
practicing within Nigeria. The concentration of practice in Lagos State (87.94%), followed distantly by
Uyo (2.23%) and Abuja (5.01%), underscores the spatial centrality of Lagos as the techno-professional
hub in the built environment domain. Temporally, the data aligns with a post-2010 digital transformation
trend in construction documentation, mirroring global technological disruptions.
Types of Studies and Tools Used
The extracted studies and field data emphasize the integration of Building Information Modeling (BIM),
parametric design tools, digital fabrication, and AR/VR systems. A mixture of exploratory survey
instruments and Likert-based psychometric tools were employed to assess perceptions, interaction quality,
and adoption barriers. Tools such as Revit, Rhino (Grasshopper), Lumion, Unity, and Unreal Engine were
recurrently mentioned, signifying a hybrid digital ecosystem grounded in visual simulation and iterative
prototyping.
Thematic Presentation of Findings
Theme 1: Current Use of AR/VR in Drawing Interpretation
While immersive technologies are conceptually valorized in architectural discourse, their pragmatic
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entrenchment in professional workflows remains emergent. A moderate acceptance pattern is reflected in
statements like:
“VR and AR tools help in visualizing complex working drawings” (Mean = 3.30, RI = 0.661)
“AR/VR enhances the design review process” (Mean = 3.41, RI = 0.683)Yet, their influence on design
finality remains contested. Although participants acknowledge improved visual clarity, the tools have not
reached epistemic integration across all documentation stages.
Theme 2: User Interaction Patterns in the Nigerian Context
User interaction is largely mediated by experience, firm type, and exposure. The dominance of users with
11– 15 years of experience (27.64%) and firm structures such as partnerships (27.64%) and limited
liability entities (17.63%) indicates that AR/VR engagement is influenced by professional stability and
capital access. Still, interaction is interface-driven rather than intention-driven—users often respond to
tool functionality rather than proactively exploring spatial data. This reflects a passive-dynamic duality in
user behavior: technologically literate but critically under-engaged.
Theme 3: Barriers to Adoption (Cost, Skill, Infrastructure) The research reveals a tripartite
constraint structure:
Cost: High initial investment for AR/VR hardware (headsets, compatible PCs) limits experimentation.
Skill: While Master’s degree holders (36.36%) form the largest educational group, there remains a
disjunction between academic qualification and practical fluency with immersive tools.
Infrastructure: Uneven broadband penetration and unreliable electricity exacerbate the disconnect
between immersive potential and actual deployment.
Collectively, these barriers constitute a latent inertia—the tools are known but remain structurally and
behaviorally underutilized.
Theme 4: Potential Benefits for Specification and Accuracy
Despite underutilization, the perceived promise of AR/VR remains high:
“AR/VR tools improve working drawing understanding” (Mean = 3.20, RI = 0.641)
“AR provides a realistic representation of specifications” (Mean = 3.17, RI = 0.636)Such feedback
suggests that immersive interaction supports cognitive anchoring—enhancing user alignment with
technical intent, reducing misinterpretation, and potentially diminishing on-site rework. These benefits
intersect with the broader thrust of precision-led construction evident in parametric and BIM paradigms.
Synthesis and Discussion Cross-Study Comparison Compared to global benchmarks, Nigerian practice
reveals a lag not in awareness but in assimilation. International literature emphasizes seamless integration
of AR/VR into real-time design communication, yet findings here demonstrate that usage is often siloed
to presentation and review stages, not embedded across the project lifecycle. Furthermore, AR/VR
remains adjunctive rather than constitutive—used to augment existing drawings, not to generate or
modify them dynamically.
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Trends and Contradictions
Two key contradictions emerge:
High belief in potential vs. low adoption: While over 60% of professionals agree on the tools’ usefulness,
actual usage metrics remain fragmented.
Technological familiarity vs. procedural exclusion: Professionals are aware of the tools, but current
design documentation regimes rarely include immersive engagement as a standardized step.
This paradox reflects a symbolic integration without structural transformation, echoing what might be
termed “aesthetic modernization” without epistemological shift.
Alignment with Theoretical Framework From the standpoint of interaction theory and spatial cognition,
findings reaffirm the hypothesis that user engagement with spatial representations is not purely
technological but also semiotic and phenomenological. The sustainability-pedagogy framework intersects
with the data to show that education and institutional culture shape how users read and respond to
immersive drawings. Moreover, the innovation-diffusion lens elucidates the asymmetrical uptake of
AR/VR—diffusing in elite, urban-centric firms, yet stagnating in peripheral practices due to structural
constraints.
SUMMARY CONCUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Summary of Key Findings
This study interrogated the nature and dynamics of user interaction with AR and VR technologies in the
interpretation of working drawings and specifications within the Nigerian construction industry. Through
a hybridized framework—drawing from immersive cognition, representational theory, and digital
spatiality—the research unearthed multiple layers of engagement, resistance, and aspiration embedded
within contemporary practice.
Key findings include:
A conceptual acceptance but operational marginality of AR/VR tools, where practitioners acknowledge
the value of immersive representation but lack the infrastructural and epistemic scaffolds to embed these
tools into normative workflows.
The user interaction pattern is mediated by firm structure, professional experience, and design culture,
rather than solely by technical exposure.
Barriers to adoption are triadic: infrastructural (hardware/software deficits), socio-economic (cost and
access), and cognitive (training gaps and symbolic unfamiliarity).
Despite these barriers, there exists a persistent latent optimism—users perceive immersive tools as
vehicles for improving drawing clarity, specification fidelity, and cross-disciplinary alignment.
These findings articulate a complex picture of technological liminality, wherein AR/VR exists
simultaneously as potential and absence, as tool and theoretical imaginary.
Implications for Practice in the Nigerian Construction Industry
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The implications of this study do not merely suggest the need for technological inclusion but rather a
reconfiguration of representational literacy within the industry. Construction documentation—long
conceived as a static, linear transmission of design intent—must now be reconsidered as multi-sensory,
interactive, and iterative.
For practitioners, this necessitates:
1. A paradigmatic shift from tool-as-output to tool-as-interface, where working drawings are not just
products of design but portals of experience.
2. A reconsideration of project workflows, allowing for feedback loops between design intent, immersive
simulation, and stakeholder perception.
3. Rethinking the definition of “working drawings” from technical orthographic expressions to hybrid
spatial narratives, accessible across disciplines and cognitive styles.
4. Ultimately, this implies that the Nigerian construction industry, if it is to remain epistemically current,
must anchor its practice not just in tools but in new logics of representation and interaction.
5. Recommendations for Policy and Stakeholders To catalyze meaningful uptake of immersive technologies,
the following strategic interventions are proposed:
6. Institutional Embedding: Regulatory and professional bodies (e.g., ARCON, NIA) should institutionalize
AR/VR literacy within certification and continuing professional development (CPD) frameworks,
ensuring its transition from novelty to normative.
7. Curricular Integration:Architecture and construction-related curricula should decentralize CAD and BIM
orthodoxy, incorporating immersive tools not as electives, but as core epistemological frameworks for
understanding space, scale, and construction logic.
8. Subsidized Technological Access:Public-private initiatives must be explored to subsidize AR/VR
hardware and software for small- and mid-sized practices—particularly outside metropolitan centers—to
democratize access and mitigate urban-tech concentration.
9. Open-Access Resource Hubs:Establish digital repositories of immersive construction case studies,
toolkits, and open-source VR/AR environments to allow practitioners and students to engage with
simulations independent of commercial licensing.
10. Collaborative Sandboxes:Encourage the creation of interdisciplinary tech sandboxes, where architects,
engineers, developers, and technologists co-develop workflows that reflect Nigerian-specific construction
realities.
Recommendations for Future Research
1. The terrain of AR/VR in construction remains under-theorized and empirically fragmented in sub-Saharan
Africa. To that end, future research may consider:
2. Longitudinal StudiesTracing firm-level integration of immersive tools over time to explore how user
behavior, project outcomes, and organizational culture evolve.
3. Phenomenological Enquiry Investigating the embodied experience of users within immersive design
environments, to understand how cognition, perception, and interpretation interact with spatial
representation.
4. Cross-Regional Comparative StudiesComparative analyses between Nigerian urban centers and global
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South counterparts (e.g., Nairobi, Accra, Mumbai) to situate local practices within broader techno-cultural
trajectories.
5. Post-Occupancy Evaluation via AR/VRExploring the use of AR/VR not only in design but in post-
construction audits, to visualize performance discrepancies between specification and realization.
6. Co-Design Methodologies Integrating end-users (clients, artisans, contractors) into immersive design
sessions to test whether AR/VR tools democratize or complicate the design-intent communication
process.
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