informant interviews, focus group discussions, and secondary data analysis. This design enabled triangulation

of findings across citizen perceptions, institutional perspectives, and policy documents. The findings indicated

that energy policies in Sierra Leone were ambitious but undermined by weak implementation, corruption,

political interference, and utility inefficiencies. Quantitative results showed that most households perceived

electricity as unaffordable, unreliable, and unfairly distributed. Qualitative insights revealed governance

deficits, including illegal connections, opaque billing systems, and weak regulatory enforcement. Donor-

funded renewable energy projects were found to be unsustainable when community ownership, integration,

and capacity-building were absent. The study concluded that Sierra Leone’s energy sector challenges were not

due to a lack of policy ambition but to systemic governance and institutional weaknesses. To bridge the gap

between policy and performance, a hybrid framework was proposed, emphasising strong governance, financial

Energy remains the cornerstone of socio-economic transformation, shaping industrialisation, service delivery,

and inclusive development. For Sierra Leone, an energy-secure future is indispensable to achieving the

aspirations of the National Development Plan (2019–2023) and the global commitments of the Sustainable

Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 7, which seeks to ensure access to affordable, reliable,

sustainable, and modern energy for all by 2030 (United Nations, 2023). Despite these ambitions, the nation's

energy sector faces significant challenges: low electrification rates (approximately 31% nationally and 7% in

rural areas), high system losses, dependence on imported petroleum products, and insufficient investment in

renewable energy (World Bank, 2023). These issues highlight the structural weaknesses in policy design,

institutional coordination, and performance monitoring, underscoring the need for a new framework in energy

service delivery.

investments, and institutional accountability can yield tangible results.

Sierra Leone's energy sector policy targets are ambitious but attainable. The government's Energy Sector

Reform Roadmap (2021–2030) aims to achieve at least 85% nationwide electricity access by 2030, with

renewable energy contributing over 60% of the national energy mix (Ministry of Energy, 2022). Planned

investments include expanding the Bumbuna hydroelectric project, integrating solar mini-grids in off-grid

communities, and modernising transmission and distribution networks to reduce non-technical losses.

Furthermore, the adoption of results-based financing and performance contracts with utilities, as seen in Côte

d'Ivoire's energy sector, represents an emerging strategy to enhance accountability and service outcomes

(African Development Bank [AfDB], 2023).

Current progress remains uneven. While generation capacity has increased to over 300 MW, primarily from

adaptive strategies rooted in regional best practices. A coherent framework that links policy intent with

viable path toward sustainable, inclusive, and resilient energy service delivery.

Energy is universally acknowledged as a fundamental driver of socio-economic transformation. Access to

affordable, reliable, and sustainable energy is not only a prerequisite for industrialisation, healthcare delivery,

education, and digital connectivity, but also for achieving inclusive growth and climate resilience. The global

development agenda, particularly Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 7, commits the international

community to ensuring universal energy access, doubling energy efficiency, and substantially increasing the

share of renewables by 2030 (United Nations, 2023). Despite these ambitions, the International Energy

structures in ensuring that energy transitions are both inclusive and sustainable (IRENA, 2023).

Africa faces the most acute energy access challenges. The continent is home to approximately 600 million

people without access to electricity, accounting for 80% of the global total (African Development Bank

[AfDB], 2023). The energy deficit undermines industrial growth, weakens public health systems, constrains

digital innovation, and perpetuates poverty. However, Africa possesses some of the world's richest renewable

energy resources, including abundant hydro resources, vast solar potential, and growing wind and geothermal

capacity. Harnessing these resources has become central to continental strategies such as the African Union’s

Agenda 2063, which underscores energy as a backbone of socio-economic transformation.

Despite the potential, weak institutional frameworks, limited financing, and fragmented regional integration

In West Africa, several countries provide compelling benchmarks for Sierra Leone. Ghana stands out with

electrification rates exceeding 88%, achieved through its National Electrification Scheme and sustained rural

programs backed by donor support and private sector engagement (Energy Commission of Ghana, 2022). The

widened access.

regulations that have successfully attracted private investment. These benchmarks highlight critical lessons: the

Sierra Leone remains one of the least electrified countries in the region. National access stands at

approximately 31%, with rural access as low as 7% - far below the West African average (World Bank, 2023).

sector is plagued by high system losses exceeding 35%, unreliable supply, and dependence on expensive

imported petroleum products. Tariffs remain among the highest in the region, relative to income levels, which

reduces affordability for households and businesses (Ministry of Energy, 2022).

Institutionally, fragmentation weakens performance. The Ministry of Energy provides policy direction, while

the Electricity Distribution and Supply Authority (EDSA) and the Electricity Generation and Transmission

Company (EGTC) handle operations. Nevertheless, overlapping roles, weak regulation, and limited capacity

hinder accountability. These challenges reveal a significant gap between policy intent and service delivery

outcomes.

Recognising these deficiencies, Sierra Leone has articulated an ambitious Energy Sector Reform Roadmap

(2021–2030). The roadmap aims for 85% electrification by 2030, with renewables accounting for 60% of the

networks, and deploying innovative grid technologies to reduce technical and commercial losses.

successful implementation will require coherent governance reforms, effective monitoring and evaluation

systems, and stronger coordination among institutions.

through the Bumbuna hydroelectric project, alongside a small network of thermal plants to support Freetown

and regional towns. However, the civil conflict of the 1990s devastated infrastructure, leaving the sector fragile

and underfunded. By the early 2000s, Sierra Leone's energy landscape was characterised by extremely low

IRENA, 2023). Installed capacity has expanded to over 300 MW, with contributions from hydropower,

35%, weak transmission networks, and high tariffs that undermine affordability for households and businesses.

Institutional fragmentation further complicates progress, with overlapping mandates between the Ministry of

Energy, the Electricity Distribution and Supply Authority (EDSA), and the Electricity Generation and

Transmission Company (EGTC) leading to duplication, slow reforms, and limited accountability.

This gap between policy intent and performance outcomes lies at the heart of Sierra Leone’s energy dilemma.

Successive governments have articulated ambitious energy policies and strategies, including the National

Energy Policy (2017) and the Energy Sector Reform Roadmap (2021–2030), which aim to achieve 85%

electrification by 2030, with 60% of the supply coming from renewable sources (Ministry of Energy, 2022).

However, translating these targets into measurable outcomes has been slow and uneven. Weak monitoring

frameworks, inadequate financing, and limited technical capacity result in policy commitments often

remaining aspirational rather than transformative. The result is a persistent mismatch between the scale of

Sierra Leone's energy challenges and the impact of policy interventions.

growth, particularly in energy-intensive sectors such as mining, manufacturing, and agriculture. It weakens

powered by renewables, supported by modern infrastructure, and underpinned by efficient and accountable

institutions. This aligns with global commitments under SDG 7 and regional aspirations for sustainable energy

transitions. However, achieving this vision requires a fundamental shift in how policies are designed,

implemented, and monitored. It demands a framework that strengthens institutional coordination, attracts

private investment, enhances accountability, and ensures that performance outcomes align with stated policy

goals.

Therefore, the central problem this study addresses is the disconnect between energy policy formulation and

actual performance in service delivery. Although Sierra Leone has established laudable policy targets, weak

institutional capacity, fragmented governance structures, and inadequate financing have limited progress. To

move from aspiration to realisation, the country must bridge the policy–performance nexus by learning from

Leone's contribution to regional cooperation on energy security, renewable adoption, and cross-border power

trade.

Academically, the study fills a critical gap in the literature on fragile states and energy governance. While

Ultimately, this study is both timely and necessary. It offers a practical roadmap for Sierra Leone to transition

from chronic energy underperformance to a future of sustainable, inclusive, and resilient energy access,

contributing to national development and regional competitiveness.