Page 4047
www.rsisinternational.org
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue IX September 2025
Exploring Aflatoxin Contamination in Nigerian Vegetables: A
Comprehensive Review of Current Insights, Drivers, and
Management Strategies
Yusuf, A. U, Haruna, S. G., Sanda, N. B., Adamu, S. H
Department of Crop Protection, Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria.
*Corresponding Author
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.51244/IJRSI.2025.120800364
Received: 04 September 2025; Accepted: 11 September 2025; Published: 15 October 2025
ABSTRACT
Aflatoxins are cancer-causing secondary metabolites of Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus. Aflatoxins are
toxic mycotoxins that are a significant food safety issue globally, especially in tropical and subtropical regions
like Nigeria, where environmental conditions are favorable for fungal growth. Chronic dietary exposure to
aflatoxin has the potential to cause severe health problems, particularly among pregnant women and children,
such as stunted growth, immune suppression, and hepatocellular carcinoma risk. Whereas cereal and legume
contamination with aflatoxins has been well researched, vegetables remain a less studied crop and a new target
for aflatoxin infestation. Vegetables stored in traditional storage facilities are the most vulnerable to higher
amounts of aflatoxins. Fresh and dried vegetables have recently been known to contain a wide presence of
aflatoxins contamination attributable to inadequate good farming practices, inferior post-harvest handling,
unhygienic drying, poor storage facilities, and weak regulation enforcement. In this review, there is a summary
of current information on the prevalence, sources, risk factors, detection, and public health effect of aflatoxin
contamination of vegetables in Nigeria. It also identifies new options for mitigation, such as the use of Aflasafe,
improved solar and mechanical dryers, and inexpensive, rapid detection kits suitable for farmers' markets and
decentralized markets. The review calls for a joint, multi-stakeholder action among farmers, traders, consumers,
scientists, and policymakers to reduce aflatoxin contamination in Nigeria. Raising awareness, strengthening food
safety infrastructure, and regulation enforcement are essential factors in decreasing aflatoxin concentrations and
enhancing vegetable safety in the Nigerian food system.
Keywords: Aflatoxins, Aspergillus flavus, Food safety, Nigeria, Vegetables
INTRODUCTION
Aflatoxins are among the cosmopolitan naturally occurring mycotoxins, produced by Aspergillus flavus and A.
parasiticus, especially under warm, humid conditions typical of tropical and subtropical regions, resulting in
serious health and economic risks in Africa, mainly due to contamination in staple foods (Shabeer et al., 2022;
Akinniyi 2025). Aflatoxin B1 (AFB
1
) is the most toxic and common, known for its liver toxicity, immune
suppression, mutagenic, and cancer-causing effects in both humans and animals (Marchese et al., 2018; Mahato
et al., 2019; Bunny et al., 2024). Aflatoxins contamination is threatening almost 70% population of the world
and about 4.5 billion people living in Asia and Africa are exposed to these mycotoxins (Umar et al., 2023).
Africa has the highest rate of mycotoxin contamination of food, which is a major contributor to the region's high
liver cancer prevalence (Nji et al., 2022). Yet, most actors in food production chain are not sensitized to severe
health and economic impacts that result from consuming contaminated foods. In Nigeria, people's exposure to
aflatoxins through diet is serious public health concern because the region's climate favors fungal growth and
there are widespread issues with post-harvest handling and storage (Ezekiel et. al., 2018; Misihairabgwi, et. al.,
2017). While many researches have focused on aflatoxin contamination in staples such as maize and groundnuts,
studies on vegetables are still limited (Ojuri et al., 2019; Warth et. al., 2012). Compounding the issue is low
awareness among farmers and traders regarding aflatoxin risks, safe handling practices, and importance of food
hygiene (Atehnkeng et al., 2008; Bandyopadhyay et al., 2016). This is concerning, as vegetables are vital part
of Nigerian diet, eaten both fresh and dried, play a key role in food and nutritional security, and contribute
substantially to the economic livelihoods, particularly in rural communities (Odebode, 2006). New data indicate
Page 4048
www.rsisinternational.org
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue IX September 2025
that vegetables including leafy vegetables and fruit vegetables including tomatoes and okra are becoming
increasingly prone to aflatoxin infestation during post-harvest processing and storage under suboptimal
conditions (Ezekiel et. al., 2014; Ezekiel et. al., 2019; Imade et al., 2021). In this review, current information
regarding the existence and severity of aflatoxin infestation among vegetables across Nigeria is synthesized with
an emphasis placed on related risk factors, detection as well as quantification procedures, available mitigative
strategies, as well as general public health impacts. It also indicates some knowledge gaps as well as suggests
future areas that can be taken to enhance foodsafety as well as aflatoxin management across vegetable value
chains.
Aspergillus Species and Mycotoxin Production
The principal fungal species responsible for aflatoxin biosynthesis in Nigeria are Aspergillus flavus, A.
parasiticus, and, less frequently, A. nomius (Shabeer et al., 2022; Okoth, 2016). These fungi are capable of
producing four major types of aflatoxins: B₁, B₂, G₁, and G₂, with aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) being the most toxic,
genotoxic, and frequently occurring variant in both agricultural products and food systems (Ahmad et al., 2022;
Bunny et al., 2024). The optimal environmental conditions for aflatoxin production by Aspergillus species
include temperatures between 25°C and 32°C and relative humidity levels exceeding 80% (Gemede, 2025)
which are typical of Nigeria’s agroecological zones, particularly during the wet season. Aflatoxigenic fungi can
infect crops at both pre-harvest and post-harvest condition, especially when produce is inadequately dried,
physically damaged, attacked by insects, or stored in poorly ventilated or humid environments (Hell et. al., 2008;
Kumar et al., 2021; Bereziartua et. al., 2025). While vegetables are not traditionally considered major hosts for
aflatoxigenic fungi, mounting evidence suggests they can become contaminated via several routes. These include
contact with aflatoxin-laden dust particles, the use of contaminated irrigation water, exposure to unclean
harvesting or processing surfaces, and co-storage with already infected grains or plant materials (Abdullahi and
Dandago, 2022; Daou et al., 2022). Additionally, the convergence of non-traditional processing practices, non-
optimal drying practices, restricted regulation, and a lack of frequent monitoring and testing serves to increase
exposure risks to consumers. Of particular concern with respect to such vegetables are leafy vegetables and fruit
vegetables, which commonly are stored or dried under open or uncontrolled environmental conditions. As
vegetables have been seen to be widely consumed throughout Nigeria and contribute increasing percentages to
household nutrition and agricultural food security, recognizing their possible susceptibility to aflatoxin
contamination is most relevant to informing effective interventions to ensure food safety.
Factors Accountable for High Prevalence Cases of Mycotoxin Infestation among African Foods
Mycotoxin infection in foods from Africa is stimulated mostly by prevailing tropical climatic conditions within
the continent that promote fungal growth and toxin production. High surrounding temperatures (25–35 °C) and
relative humidities over 70% support ideal conditions for aflatoxin producing fungi within crops (Darwish et al.,
2014). Sporadic rains, frequent drought stress, and climate-driven changes in agroecological zones additionally
increase crop vulnerability by compromising defenses among plants as well as changing fungal ecology (Bunny
et al., 2024; Medina et al., 2015). Infestation by pests and mechanical injury occurring during growth periods
add additional infection avenues to boost fungal colonization with resultant accumulation of subsequent toxin.
Agricultural and post-harvest practices within most African smallholder systems also add to levels of
contamination. Restricted access to resistant varieties of crops, low fertility soils, and inefficient pest
management make it easy for pre-harvest invasion by fungi (Ezekiel et al., 2014). Post-harvest losses are
aggravated by inefficient drying, storage in humid environments, and permeable storage packs with resulting
moisture penetration (Darwish et al., 2014; Kamala et al., 2018; Xu et al., 2018). Older processing practices,
including sun-drying on open ground and intermixing fresh commodities with old stock supplies, invite cross-
infection and carry-over of aflatoxin from one season to the next (Adeyeye et al., 2021 In the absence of efficient
sorting and grading systems, commodities that appear to be moldy or damaged often find their way into local
markets or into stores domestically, especially among communities with food insecurity.
Socio-economic and institutional reasons also contribute to widening the problem. Limited knowledge about
mycotoxin health hazards among farmers, traders, and consumers diminishes uptake of protective actions, while
poverty and economic incentives for sales motivate sales and usage of tainted produce (Eskola et al., 2020;
Adeyeye et al., 2021). Regulations remain weak or erratic; fewer than one-third of African nations have
Page 4049
www.rsisinternational.org
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue IX September 2025
established national mycotoxin levels, a majority being imports from developed nations with disregards for
native eating habits (Matumba et al., 2017). Infrastructure for testing is low, as surveillance programs cover only
a small portion of a nation's area; tainted foods thus move undetected throughout a nation's markets. To overcome
these drivers calls for a comprehensive strategy incorporating climate-proof farming practices, better post-
harvest handling, low-cost detection technologies, as well as regionally tailored regulations.
Mechanisms and Risk Factors for Aflatoxin Contamination in Vegetables
Aflatoxin contamination in vegetables mainly occurs after harvest, especially during drying, transportation, and
storage (Bankole et. al., 2006; Onyeke, 2020). While fresh vegetables usually have high moisture content that
can initially prevent fungal growth and aflatoxin production, improper drying under unsanitary or humid
conditions fosters ideal environments for aflatoxigenic Aspergillus species to grow and produce toxins (Hell et.
al., 2008).
In Nigeria, several contextual factors heighten the vulnerability of vegetables to aflatoxin contamination.
Traditional sun-drying methods often involve spreading produce on bare ground or other exposed surfaces, a
practice that promotes direct contact with dust and insects and results in fluctuating moisture levels conducive
to fungal proliferation (Adetunji et al., 2017). Conditions in many open-air markets are similarly problematic:
the absence of raised platforms, coverings, or other hygienic infrastructure leaves vegetables susceptible to rain,
rodents, and airborne fungal spores (Kariuki et al., 2017). Contamination can also be introduced during handling
and distribution. Vegetables are frequently packed in unclean sacks, baskets, or crates and transported in humid,
poorly ventilated vehicles, creating microenvironments that favor fungal growth and aflatoxin accumulation
(Ojuri et al., 2019; Misihairabgwi et al., 2017).
Another critical factor is the low level of awareness of aflatoxin risks among farmers, processors, and vendors.
Limited knowledge of the sources and health implications of aflatoxin encourages the continuation of unsafe
post-harvest practices (Bandyopadhyay et al., 2016). Finally, effective surveillance is hindered by poor access
to advanced analytical technologies such as liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and high-
performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), especially in rural and peri-urban laboratories (Gbashi et al.,
2018).
Together, these interrelated mechanisms and risk factors underscore the need for improved post-harvest
handling, targeted education campaigns, and greater investment in diagnostic capacity to reduce aflatoxin
contamination of vegetables and protect public health.
Empirically proven Contamination with Aflatoxins in Vegetables
A rising amount of empirical literature corroborates high aflatoxin infestation prevalence among vegetables
across Nigeria, primarily open markets where standard post-harvest management practices dominate. Key
findings across different zones indicate the scope, intensity, and drivers of infestation among fresh as well as dry
vegetables:
Zaria, Kaduna State
A recent analysis by Haruna, (2025) monitored aflatoxin occurrences across nine fresh vegetable samples
regularly seen in Samaru Market, Zaria. These were tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), cabbage (Brassica
oleracea), cucumber (Cucumis sativus), lettuce (Lactuca sativa), spinach (Spinacia oleracea), and amaranth
(Amaranthus spp.). ELISA-based quantification indicated that 55.6% of samples tested contained aflatoxins with
cabbage, tomato, and cucumber having amounts beyond NAFDAC's maximum permissible value of 10µg/kg,
hence depicting high health hazards in markets around Zaria.
Minna, Niger State
Engormix (2022) established a level of aflatoxin contamination among fresh and dry leafy vegetables in Minna
including bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina) and fluted pumpkin (Telfairia occidentalis). Dry bitter leaf showed
maximum contamination due to improper ventilation, exposure to direct sunlight with ground surfaces, and
Page 4050
www.rsisinternational.org
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue IX September 2025
hygienic drying practices. Results indicate that drying practices commonly employed amplify risks related to
contamination tremendously.
Ibadan,Oyo State
Okunola et al. (2018) showed a comparison between aflatoxin residue content between dried okra (Abelmoschus
esculentus) and tomato from market outlets in Ibadan. Dried okra had significantly higher contents than tomato.
These were accounted for by differences in pH and water activity that influence fungal development. Aspergillus
flavus and A. parasiticus were repeatedly isolated to reaffirm their status as chief aflatoxigenic fungi among
foods from Nigeria.
Osogbo and South-Western Nigeria
Although scientific investigation in Osogbo and surrounding areas has hitherto concentrated essentially on
cereals and pulses, a few recent studies reveal that vegetables kept together with commodities in mixed stores
also fall vulnerable. Osho et al. (2023) cited an instance where cross-infections resulted between vegetables kept
alongside stored yams packed together with others without ventilation. These conditions facilitate dissemination
of fungal spores with resultant mycotoxin accumulation among vegetables.
Calabar and the Niger Delta
Preliminary surveys undertaken in humid southern regions such as Port Harcourt and Calabar reveal that garden
egg (Solanum aethiopicum) and some leafy vegetables available from street-side markets contain detectable
amounts of aflatoxin. Eshola et al. (2020) confirmed that vegetable specimens from such regions up to the value
of 30% contained amounts higher than EU standard 4 µg/kg safe threshold due to improper storage, high relative
humidity levels, and being neither properly packaged nor having a protective cover upon display for resale.
Kano and Dry Northern Zone
Contamination has been high especially in semi-arid zones such as Kano where vegetables are usually preserved
by drying because refrigerating is limited. Suleiman et. al. (2017) found Aspergillus species to be present
together with AFB1 residues in dry pepper (Capsicum spp.), okra, and roselle leaves (Hibiscus sabdariffa).
Employing TLC and ELISA protocols, aflatoxin levels were discovered to be between 3.5 to 45 µg/kg with
higher occurrences in samples that were dried with an absence of hygienic supervision.
Market-wide Surveillance and Surveillance Gaps
Notwithstanding mounting documentation of vegetable contamination, comprehensive country-level data for
aflatoxin in vegetables of Nigeria remain scarce. There are location-specific published papers using diverse
detection tests - most commonly enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and thin-layer chromatography
(TLC) - with very rare uses of high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Few inquiries chronicle
seasonality or trace the entire value chain from farm to market with critical knowledge gaps. Standardized
surveillance using next-state methodologies such as liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) is
necessary to establish a credible national baseline across the nation's diverse agroecological zones (Adetunji et
al., 2022; Ojuri et al., 2019).
Throughout our review of studies, some recurring trends become evident. Dried vegetables are more likely to
contain higher levels of aflatoxin than their fresh counterparts, and leafy and fruit vegetables such as okra,
spinach, and tomato are among the most vulnerable. Fungal isolates virtually invariably include Aspergillus
flavus and A. parasiticus, which highlight their primary responsibility for contaminating. Rural drying practices,
storage practices, and marketing practices again and again appear to be important causes for higher toxin content.
At a national level, seasonally stratified surveillance programs don't exist anywhere, also longitudinal
epidemiological studies to evaluate vegetable-borne aflatoxin exposure in terms of biomarkers for intake or
disease outcome are scanty. Cost–benefit assessments for smallholder farmers to evaluate mitigative measures
also don't exist. These voids together present a strong justification for integrated surveillance monitoring at a
national level, enhanced stakeholder knowledge, and investment into controlled dry storage infrastructure to
Page 4051
www.rsisinternational.org
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue IX September 2025
minimize vegetable-based aflatoxin exposure in Nigeria. Detection and Quantitation of Aflatoxins in Vegetables
Appropriate detection and characterization of aflatoxins are important to assessing foodsafety risks, gaining
compliance with international and indigenous regulatory mandates, and informing appropriate mitigative
controls (Gemede, 2025). In Nigeria itself, a variety of analytical techniques have been applied to detect aflatoxin
residues in vegetables with different strengths and weaknesses with respect to sensitivity, selectivity, cost, and
usability (Yemisi et al., 2023). These comprise standard and high-tech chromatographic protocols and newer
technology with correspondingly different hurdles and prospects for deployment. Amongst the traditional
methods, thin-layer chromatography (TLC) is one of the most commonly utilized owing to ease of usage, low
cost, and ease of application. TLC is capable of detecting various types of aflatoxins by matching retention factor
(Rf) value and intensity of fluorescent sample spots with standard known spots (Shephard, 2008). In spite of
being suitable for initial screening, the technique is semi-quantitative, has lower sensitivity and reproducibility,
and limited ability to resolve very low levels. As such, it is less ideal for rigid regulatory uses but is still utilized
by local laboratories and universities for initial vegetable screening (Bankole et al., 2006).
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is a faster, more economical, but relatively sensitive alternative
with the ability to detect aflatoxin B₁ down to a level of 1 µg kg⁻¹ against complex matrices found in foods
(Zinedine et al., 2007). ELISA has been effectively utilized in surveys throughout Zaria, Ibadan, and Minna with
impressive discoveries of high-level contaminations found amongst leafy vegetables as well as spices
(Engormix, 2022; Haruna, 2025; Okunola et al., 2018). Matrix effects coupled with cross-reactivity with
structurally related compounds diminishes accuracy such that confirmatory chromatographic analysis is
preferred. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is commonly called a gold standard for aflatoxin
analysis because it is highly resolving, specific, and reproducible and permits simultaneous quantitation of
several aflatoxins in vegetable matrices with high accuracy (Nguyen et al., 2023). Greater sensitivity is possible
with derivatization steps such as post-column bromination or fluorescence enhancement. In spite of these
benefits, HPLC is not fully utilized in Nigeria due to high costs for instrumentation and maintenance and trained
personnel (Hameedat et al., 2022). Even better is liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), with
potent separation coupled with mass detection to detect and quantify sub-parts-per-billion levels of aflatoxins
with low matrix interference. LC-MS/MS is especially useful for regulatory surveillance and multi-mycotoxin
detection (Krska et al., 2008). Even though LC-MS/MS usage is now restricted to limited bases of cost and
infrastructure in Nigerian labs, usage is slowly expanding with international cooperation as well as with export-
quality assurance programs at seaports and inspection points across borders (Gbashi et al., 2018). New
technologies increasingly complement such established procedures. Rapid immunochromatographic (lateral-
flow) kits can produce results within several minutes with only a low level of technical expertise required,
offering an attractive option for collection sites amidst open markets or out-field conditions. Compared to
laboratory-based assays, such kits will be less sensitive and specific but include early-warning function (Wacoo
et al., 2014). In parallel with such kits, hyperspectral imaging developments, fluorescence spectroscopy, as well
as artificial-intelligence algorithms, are providing non-destructive detection in real-time. For example, Liu et al.
(2024) demonstrated that AI-based hyperspectral imaging allowed reliable separation among aflatoxin-
containing dried vegetables. Thus far experimental within Nigeria, such spectroscopic as well as machine-
learning adjuncts offer much promise for future incorporation into national surveillance
CHALLENGES AND RECOMMENDATIONS:
Despite increasing awareness of aflatoxin risks, Nigeria continues to face persistent and multifaceted challenges
in effectively detecting, controlling, and regulating aflatoxin contamination in vegetables. Laboratory
infrastructure remains underdeveloped, with high-sensitivity analytical tools like LC-MS/MS largely confined
to urban centers and inaccessible to rural markets where the bulk of vegetables are sold (Ezekiel et. al., 2012;
Krska et. al., 2008). The shortage of trained analysts and technicians further limits the capacity to conduct routine
monitoring, while fragmented and inconsistent data across regions hampers coordinated response efforts.
National surveillance often neglects vegetables, leaving a significant gap in food safety oversight (Ojuri et. al.,
2019).
Enforcement of aflatoxin regulations is generally weak, particularly in informal markets that dominate vegetable
trade (Robinson, and Yoshida, 2016). Regulatory bodies such as NAFDAC and SON face systemic barriers,
including insufficient personnel, inadequate equipment, and limited jurisdiction over decentralized trade systems
(Bandyopadhyay et. al., 2016; Ezekiel et. al., 2020). Public understanding of aflatoxins also remains low.
Page 4052
www.rsisinternational.org
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue IX September 2025
Farmers and vendors frequently engage in high-risk practices such as sun-drying produce directly on the ground
or storing vegetables with cereals in humid, unventilated conditions (Suleiman, et. al., 2017; Adetunji et. al.,
2022). These behaviors, shaped by financial limitations and entrenched norms, contribute to persistent
contamination.
Addressing these challenges requires a holistic, multisectoral approach. Investments in laboratory infrastructure
and human capacity must be scaled, while low-cost, rapid diagnostic tools should be deployed to decentralize
aflatoxin testing (Wacoo et. al., 2014; Shephard, 2008). National extension services and academic curricula
should integrate aflatoxin training, ensuring long-term capacity building (Okoth, 2018). Public-private
partnerships offer a promising avenue to scale innovations in drying, packaging, and storage, particularly those
tailored for smallholder and market-level use (Gbashi et. al., 2018). Simultaneously, risk communication
strategies must be culturally relevant and inclusive to foster behavioral change. In moving forward, systemic and
sustained investment will be essential to ensure safe vegetable consumption and reduce aflatoxin-related health
burdens in Nigeria.
Strategic Recommendations:
Nigeria must adopt a coherent and pragmatic strategy to bridge gap between policy design and on-the-ground
implementation (FAO/WHO, 2019). A national aflatoxin control program tailored specifically to vegetables
should be established under the broader National Mycotoxin Control Strategy (Chilaka et. al., 2022). This
program would coordinate surveillance, education, regulation, and response efforts across value chains and
regions.
Mobile diagnostic units equipped with rapid aflatoxin testing kits should be deployed in informal markets to
enable real-time, decentralized monitoring (Engormix, 2022). This would not only enhance food safety
compliance but also generate timely data for public health interventions. Vendor and farmer certification
schemes based on adherence to hygiene and aflatoxin safety standards could incentivize behavioral change,
especially when linked with consumer awareness campaigns and market premiums (Chilenga et. al., 2024).
Decentralized training networks, anchored within agricultural extension offices and vocational training centers,
and should be established to enhance knowledge transfer on preventive practices and detection techniques
(Bandyopadhyay et. al., 2015). Innovation must also be incentivized. Grants and competitions can stimulate the
development of local solutions in biocontrol, post-harvest processing, and packaging (Liu et. al., 2024).
Nigeria should also align its standards with regional and global food safety protocols. Engagement with
ECOWAS, the African Union, and international donor partners can help scale interventions, build technical
capacity, and facilitate access to safer trade markets. A unified, inclusive, and forward-looking strategy is
imperative to safeguard public health, strengthen trade credibility, and ensure the resilience of Nigeria’s
vegetable sector.
Future Directions and Research Needs:
Aflatoxin control in Nigerian vegetables requires a forward-looking research agenda that bridges epidemiology,
innovation, and policy (Gong, 2002). There is an urgent need for longitudinal studies that explore the relationship
between aflatoxin exposure through vegetables and public health outcomes such as hepatocellular carcinoma,
immune suppression, and stunting in children (Williams et. al., 2004; Liu and Wu, 2010). These studies should
employ biomarkers like aflatoxin-albumin adducts and urinary AFM1 to establish exposure-response patterns
within high-risk populations (Mézes et. al., 2021).
Research should also focus on co-contamination and synergistic mycotoxin effects, as vegetables often harbor
multiple toxins, including ochratoxins and fumonisins (Aliero et. al., 2022). Climate-related predictive modeling
that incorporates rainfall, humidity, and temperature data could guide early warning systems and enable
proactive risk management (Paterson and Lima, 2010). Meanwhile, technological innovation must be driven by
local contexts. Community solar dryers, antifungal bio-coatings, and AI-enhanced detection tools like hyper
spectral imaging should be prioritized for research and scale-up (Liu et. al., 2024).
Page 4053
www.rsisinternational.org
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue IX September 2025
To strengthen governance, a National Vegetable Aflatoxin Control Program is proposed, embedded within
Nigeria’s broader mycotoxin strategy (Chilaka et. al., 2022). This would promote coordinated action across
agriculture, public health, and commerce, while drawing on international food safety protocols such as those of
Codex Alimentarius and ECOWAS (FAO/WHO, 2019). Hygiene-linked certification for vegetable vendors
(Chilenga et. al., 2024) and collaboration with institutions like the African Union and FAO (Chilaka et. al., 2022;
FAO, 2022) could enhance compliance and unlock technical support.
Long-term success will depend on expanding research in epidemiology, climate mapping, and biotechnology.
Epidemiological studies focused on aflatoxin-related diseases (Gong et. al., 2002; Liu and Wu, 2010), climate
models to predict high-risk zones (Paterson and Lima, 2010), and artificial intelligence applications for real-time
monitoring (Liu et. al., 2024) represent promising frontiers. Genetic breeding for fungal resistance in vegetable
crops (Munkvold, 2017) and behavioral studies exploring barriers to safe practice adoption (Chilenga et. al.,
2024) are likewise essential. Outreach programs must also be inclusive, recognizing the pivotal role of women
in food value chains and tailoring interventions accordingly.
Improving food safety calls for both technical and behavioral reforms. Affordable screening techniques such as
enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and immunochromatographic test kits can facilitate early
detection in community settings (Zinedine et. al., 2007; Wacoo et. al., 2014). Solar drying units and sealed,
ventilated storage systems, developed through public-private partnerships could enhance post-harvest quality
and limit fungal colonization (Bandyopadhyay et. al., 2016). Agricultural extension services are crucial in
scaling farmer training and outreach, while national policy must commit to sustained investments in capacity
building and infrastructure.
Breeding programs targeting resistance to fungal colonization should integrate gene editing and conventional
breeding methods to deliver aflatoxin-resistant vegetable varieties (Munkvold, 2017). Behavioral and social
science research can deepen understanding of farmer and vendor practices, illuminating barriers to adopting safer
handling and storage (Haruna, 2025). Finally, digital tools, including GIS-enabled monitoring platforms should
be developed to facilitate real-time surveillance and policy response (Adetunji et. al., 2022). These initiatives
require robust, multisectoral collaboration among academia, industry, and government, supported by dedicated
funding and policy frameworks that recognize the centrality of food safety to national development.
Aflatoxin contamination in vegetables constitutes a silent but increasingly critical threat to Nigeria’s food
system, carrying serious implications for public health, agricultural productivity, and international trade.
Traditionally overlooked in mycotoxin control efforts, vegetables particularly when dried, stored, or marketed
under unhygienic conditions are now recognized as significant contributors to chronic aflatoxin exposure. This
emerging evidence demands a recalibration of national food-safety priorities.
Despite the availability of global detection tools and mitigation strategies, Nigeria’s response has been hampered
by fragmented regulatory enforcement, inadequate investment, and limited public awareness. Addressing these
gaps requires a comprehensive, cross-sectoral approach. National surveillance systems should be expanded to
include vegetables as a priority commodity, while laboratory and diagnostic infrastructure must be strengthened
to support routine testing. Training a new generation of food-safety professionals is essential to sustain these
efforts.
Interventions must also reach farmers, traders, and consumers through tailored education and incentive programs
that encourage safe production, drying, storage, and marketing practices. National campaigns, vendor
certification schemes, school-based interventions, and gender-sensitive outreach can all help reshape behaviors
across the value chain. In tandem, regional and international collaboration can provide the technical expertise,
financial resources, and policy harmonization needed for long-term impact.
To operationalize these goals, Nigeria’s regulators could establish a National Vegetable Aflatoxin Control
Program within the broader National Mycotoxin Control Strategy. Such a program would deploy mobile
diagnostic units equipped with rapid testing kits for real-time market monitoring, link vendor certification to
market premiums to reward compliance, and introduce micro-credit schemes that enable farmers to invest in
sealed solar dryers. Harmonizing maximum aflatoxin limits with the Economic Community of West African
States (ECOWAS) would further facilitate regional trade.
Page 4054
www.rsisinternational.org
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue IX September 2025
Implementing these integrated measures would reduce aflatoxin exposure, safeguard public health, and enhance
Nigeria’s trade competitiveness. With sustained political will, coordinated investments, and inclusive
partnerships, the country can build a safer, more resilient food system that protects its population while unlocking
the full nutritional and economic potential of its
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was supported by Bayero University Institutional Based Research Grant (BUK/DRIP/TETF/036)
under the title “Prevalence of Aflatoxins and Aflatoxigenic Fungi Associated with Discard and Dried Tomatoes
and Pepper Marketed in Kano”.
REFERENCES
1. Abdullahi, N., & Dandago, M. A. (2022). Aflatoxins in food grains: contamination, dangers and control.
Fudma Journal of Sciences, 5(4), 22–29. https://doi.org/10.33003/fjs-2021-0504-776
2. Adetunji, M. C., Atanda, O. O., & Ezekiel, C. N. (2017). Risk assessment of mycotoxins in stored maize
grains consumed by infants and young children in Nigeria. Children (Basel), 4(7), 58.
https://doi.org/10.3390/children4070058
3. Adeyeye, S. A. O., Ashaolu, T. J., & Idowu-Adebayo, F. (2021). Mycotoxins: Food safety, consumer health
and Africa’s food security. Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds, 42(8), 5779–5795.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10406638.2021.1957952
4. Ahmad, M. M., Qamar, F., Saifi, M., & Abdin, M. Z. (2022). Natural inhibitors: A sustainable way to combat
aflatoxins. Frontiers in Microbiology, 13, 993834. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2022.993834
5. Akinniyi, J. N. (2025). Assessment of total aflatoxin in selected crops using enzyme-linked immunosorbent
assay (ELISA). Food Science & Preservation, 32(1), 65–76.
6. Atehnkeng, J., Ojiambo, P. S., Donner, M., Ikotun, T., Sikora, R. A., Cotty, P. J., & Bandyopadhyay, R.
(2008). Distribution and toxigenicity of Aspergillus species isolated from maize kernels from three agro-
ecological zones in Nigeria. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 122(1-2), 74–84.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2007.11.062
7. Bandyopadhyay, R., Ortega-Beltran, A., Akande, A., Mutegi, C., Atehnkeng, J., Kaptoge, L., & Cotty, P. J.
(2016). Biological control of aflatoxins in Africa: Current status and potential challenges. World Mycotoxin
Journal, 9(5), 771–789.
8. Bankole, S., Schollenberger, M., & Drochner, W. (2006). Mycotoxins in food systems in Sub-Saharan Africa:
A review. Mycotoxin Research, 22(3), 163–169.
9. Bereziartua, A., Huss, A., Kers, J. G., Smit, L. A. M., Vermeulen, R., & Figueiredo, D. M. (2025). Pre-harvest
aflatoxin contamination in crops and climate change factors: A European overview. Toxins, 17, 344.
https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17070344
10. Bunny, S. M., Umar, A., Bhatti, H. S., & Honey, S. F. (2024). Aflatoxin risk in the era of climatic change - a
comprehensive review. CABI Agriculture and Bioscience, 5(1), 105. https://doi.org/10.1186/s43170-024-
00305-3
11. Chilaka, C. A., Obidiegwu, J. E., Chilaka, A. C., Atanda, O. O., & Mally, A. (2022). Mycotoxin regulatory
status in Africa: A decade of weak institutional efforts. Toxins, 14, 442.
12. Chilenga, C., Mainje, M., Watts, A. G., Munkhuwa, V., Ndhlovue, B., & Machira, K. (2024). Factors
influencing willingness to pay for aflatoxin-safe foods among farmers, traders, and consumers in sub-Saharan
Africa. Applied Food Research, 4(2), 100511.
13. Daou, R., Joubrane, K., Maroun, R. G., Khabbaz, L. R., Ismail, A. A., & El Khoury, A. A. (2022).
Mycotoxins: Factors influencing production and control strategies. AIMS Agriculture and Food, 6(1), 416–
447. https://doi.org/10.3934/agrfood.2021025
14. Darwish, W. S., Ikenaka, Y., Nakayama, S. M., & Ishizuka, M. (2014). An overview on mycotoxin
contamination of foods in Africa. Journal of Veterinary Medical Science, 76(6), 789–797.
https://doi.org/10.1292/jvms.13-0563
15. Engormix. (2022). Aflatoxin contamination in Nigerian vegetables: Trends and interventions.
https://en.engormix.com/mycotoxins/articles/aflatoxin-vegetables-nigeria
16. Eshola, L. O., Etim, E. E., & Udoh, E. J. (2020). Assessment of aflatoxin levels in roadside vegetables sold
in southern Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Food Safety and Hygiene, 11(2), 24–30.
Page 4055
www.rsisinternational.org
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue IX September 2025
17. Eskola, M., Kos, G., Elliott, C. T., Hajslova, J., Mayar, S., & Krska, R. (2019). Worldwide contamination of
food-crops with mycotoxins: validity of the widely cited ‘FAO estimate’. Critical Reviews in Food Science
and Nutrition, 60(16), 2773–2789. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2019.1658570
18. Ezekiel, C. N., Atehnkeng, J., Odebode, A. C., & Bandyopadhyay, R. (2014). Distribution of aflatoxigenic
Aspergillus section Flavi in commercial poultry feed in Nigeria. International Journal of Food Microbiology,
189, 18–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2014.07.026
19. Ezekiel, C. N., Sulyok, M., Ogara, I. M., Abia, W. A., Warth, B., Šarkanj, B., Turner, P. C., & Krska, R.
(2019). Mycotoxins in uncooked and plate-ready household food from rural northern Nigeria. Food and
Chemical Toxicology, 128, 171–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2019.04.002
20. FAO/WHO. (2019). Codex Alimentarius and mycotoxins: Guidance on sampling and analysis. CXS 193-
1995.
21. Gbashi, S., Madala, N. E., De Saeger, S., De Boevre, M., Adekoya, I., Adebo, O. A., & Njobeh, P. B. (2018).
The socio-economic impact of mycotoxin contamination in Africa. Food Control, 90, 226–234.
22. Gemede, H. F. (2025). Toxicity, mitigation, and chemical analysis of aflatoxins and other toxic metabolites
produced by Aspergillus: A comprehensive review. Toxins, 17, 331. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17070331
23. Haruna, H. (2025). Aflatoxin contamination in vegetables sold in Nigerian markets: A multi-location survey.
African Journal of Food Safety and Toxicology, 12(1), 45–57.
24. Hell, K., Cardwell, K. F., Setamou, M., & Poehling, H. M. (2008). The influence of storage practices on
aflatoxin contamination in maize in four agroecological zones of Benin. Journal of Stored Products Research,
36(4), 365–382.
25. Imade, F., Ankwasa, E. M., Geng, H., Ullah, S., Ahmad, T., Wang, G. & Liu, Y. (2021). Updates on food and
feed mycotoxin contamination and safety in Africa with special reference to Nigeria. Mycology, 12(4), 245–
260. https://doi.org/10.1080/21501203.2021.1941371
26. Kamala, A., Shirima, C., Jani, B., Bakari, M., Sillo, H. & Gong, Y. Y. (2018). Outbreak of an acute
aflatoxicosis in Tanzania. World Mycotoxin Journal, 11(3), 311–320.
https://doi.org/10.3920/WMJ2018.2344
27. Kariuki, E. N., Ng'ang'a, Z. W., & Wanzala, P. (2017). Food-handling practices and environmental factors
associated with food contamination among street food vendors in Nairobi County, Kenya. East African Health
Research Journal, 1(1), 62–71. https://doi.org/10.24248/EAHRJ-D-16-00382
28. Kumar, A., Pathak, H., Bhadauria, S., & Sudan, J. (2021). Aflatoxin contamination in food crops: causes,
detection, and management. Food Production, Processing and Nutrition, 3, 17.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s43014-021-00064-y
29. Liu, M., Zhao, Z., Sun, J., Wang, Y., Li, X. & Bai, J. (2024). Fast fluorescence sensing of aflatoxin B1
employing a europium metal–organic framework. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 131, 105–118.
30. Mahato, D. K., Lee, K. E., Kamle, M., Devi, S., Dewangan, K. N., Kumar, P., & Kang, S. G. (2019).
Aflatoxins in food and feed: An overview on prevalence, detection and control strategies. Frontiers in
Microbiology, 10, 2266. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2019.02266
31. Marchese, S., Sorice, A., Ariano, A., Florio, S., Budillon, A., Costantini, S., & Severino, L. (2018). Evaluation
of aflatoxin M1 effects on a hepatoblastoma cell line. Toxins, 10(11), 436.
https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins10110436
32. Matumba, L., Van Poucke, C., Ediage, E. N., & De Saeger, S. (2017). Keeping mycotoxins away from food:
Does the existence of regulations have any impact in Africa? Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition,
57(8), 1584–1592. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2014.993021
33. Medina, Á., Rodríguez, A., & Magan, N. (2015). Climate change and mycotoxigenic fungi: impacts on
mycotoxin production. Current Opinion in Food Science, 5, 99–104.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cofs.2015.11.002
34. Misihairabgwi, J. M., Ezekiel, C. N., Sulyok, M., Shephard, G. S., & Krska, R. (2017). Mycotoxin
contamination of foods in Southern Africa: A 10-year review (2007–2016). Critical Reviews in Food Science
and Nutrition, 59(1), 43–58.
35. Nguyen, T. D., Nguyen, T. N. H., Ly, T. K., Nguyen, Q. H., Le, T. T. and Le, D. V. (2023). High-performance
method for quantitation of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2. Food Science & Nutrition, 11(10), 6509–6521.
https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.3594
36. Nji, Q. N., Babalola, O. O., Ekwomadu, T. I., Nleya, N., & Mwanza, M. (2022). Six main contributing factors
to high levels of mycotoxin contamination in African foods. Toxins, 14(5), 318.
https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14050318
Page 4056
www.rsisinternational.org
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue IX September 2025
37. Odebode, S. O. (2006). Assessment of home gardening as a potential source of household income in Oyo
State. Nigerian Journal of Horticultural Science, 11(1), 47–55.
38. Ojuri, O. T., Ezekiel, C. N., Sulyok, M., Ezeokoli, O. T., Oyedele, O. A. and Krska, R. (2018). Assessing the
mycotoxicological risk from consumption of complementary foods by infants and young children in Nigeria.
Food and Chemical Toxicology, 121, 37–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2018.08.025
39. Okoth, S. (2016). Improving the evidence base on aflatoxin contamination and exposure in Africa. CTA
Working Paper 16/13.
40. Okunola, A. A., Akinyele, B. J., & Olufolaji, D. B. (2018). Mycotoxin contamination in dried okra and tomato
retailed in Nigerian markets. African Journal of Food Science, 12(4), 95–102.
41. Onyeke, C. C. (2020). Review of mycotoxins in foods in Nigeria. Food Control, 118, 107376.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2020.107376
42. Osho, B. A., Adeyemi, T. A., & Folarin, M. O. (2023). Surveillance of aflatoxins in Nigerian markets:
Vegetables and legumes under threat. Food Safety Journal, 5(4), 189–197.
43. Shabeer, S., Asad, S., Jamal, A., & Ali, A. (2022). Aflatoxin contamination, its impact and management
strategies: An updated review. Toxins, 14(5), 307. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14050307
44. Shephard, G. S. (2008). Determination of mycotoxins in human foods. Chemical Society Reviews, 37(11),
2468–2477.
45. Suleiman, M. N., Musa, J. J., & Umar, M. A. (2017). Assessment of aflatoxin contamination in sun-dried
vegetables in Kano State, Nigeria. Bayero Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences, 10(2), 145–150.
46. Umar, A., Bhatti, H. S., & Honey, S. F. (2023). A call for aflatoxin control in Asia. CABI Agriculture and
Bioscience, 4(1), 27. https://doi.org/10.1186/s43170-023-00169-z
47. Wacoo, A. P., Wendiro, D., Vuzi, P. C., & Hawumba, J. F. (2014). Methods for detection of aflatoxins in
agricultural food crops. Journal of Applied Chemistry, 2014, 706291.
48. Warth, B., Parich, A., Atehnkeng, J., Bandyopadhyay, R., Schuhmacher, R., Sulyok, M., & Krska, R. (2012).
Quantitation of mycotoxins in food and feed from Burkina Faso and Mozambique using LC-MS/MS
multitoxin method. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 60(36), 9352–9363.
https://doi.org/10.1021/jf302003n
49. Xu, Y., Gong, Y. Y., & Routledge, M. N. (2018). Aflatoxin exposure assessed by aflatoxin albumin adduct
biomarker in populations from six African countries. World Mycotoxin Journal, 11(3), 411–419.
https://doi.org/10.3920/WMJ2017.2284
50. Yemisi, A., Kate, J., Oluwakanyinsola, S., Emmanuel, K. O., Oluwajomiloju, J. I., Abraham, J., & Olasupo,
O. (2023). Occurrence of aflatoxins in Nigerian foods: a review. Hrvatski časopis za prehrambenu
tehnologiju, biotehnologiju i nutricionizam, 18(1-2), 29–36.
