INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue IX September 2025
www.rsisinternational.org
Page 4386
Analysis of Risk Factors Contributing to Postpartum Depression: A
Retrospective Case Study at Neuropsychiatric Hospital, Aro,
Abeokuta
1
Ajayi, Olubukunola Adesola,
2
Arogundade Toliah Abiodun,
3
Sodiya Olaide Olasubomi,
4
Sulyman
Funke,
5
Ogunrinde Badejoko Alice,
6
Enaholo, Kikelomo Isimot,
7
Aderibigbe Subuola Christiana,
8
Sulaiman Abibat Damilola.
9
Joseph Comfort Oreoluwa,
*
Joseph Comfort Oreoluwa
1
Department of Midwifery, Ogun State College of Nursing Sciences, School of Midwifery, Abeokuta,
Ogun State, Nigeria
2 3 4 5 6 7
Department of Nursing, Babcock University, Ilishan-Remo, Ogun State, Nigeria.
8
Ogun State College of Nursing Science, School of Midwifery
9
Department of Nursing Science, University of Lagos, Lagos State, Nigeria
*Department of Nursing Science, University of Lagos, Lagos State, Nigeria.
*Corresponding Author
DOI: https://doi.org/10.51244/IJRSI.2025.120800398
Received: 16 September 2025; Accepted: 24 September 2025; Published: 18 October 2025
ABSTRACT
Postpartum depression is a serious mental disorder after childbirth, harming mothers, infants, and families.
Delayed recognition increases risks, leading to untreated illness, chronicity, and recurrence, significantly
affecting social and cognitive health. This study aimed to assess the contributing factors influencing
postpartum depression among mothers attending Neuropsychiatric hospital, Aro, Abeokuta, Ogun State in the
last 10 years.
This descriptive retrospective study involved 50 patient records which were selected using the purposive
sampling method of the available patient records at the research setting. The checklist for data collection
was compared with the literature review on the research topic and reviewed by experts in the field of nursing
and midwifery to ensure content validity. The reliability of the instrument was assessed through test-retest
method which yielded reliability index of 0.70. The data was collected using a checklist and results were
presented in tables using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 26.
This study revealed that participants, all within reproductive age, experienced postpartum depression. Social
factors included lack of social support (50%) and breastfeeding difficulties (2%). Psychological contributors
were dominated by financial difficulties (40%), alongside fewer cases of domestic violence and marital
problems. These findings highlight the multifaceted nature of postpartum depression, shaped by both social
and psychological determinants among affected mothers.
This study concluded that Postpartum depression is multifactorial, influenced by psychological, obstetric, and
social factors, with key risks including poor relationships, domestic violence, financial stress, psychiatric
history, caesarean section, hypertension, breastfeeding challenges, and multiple births.
Keywords: Factors, Postpartum, Depression, Postpartum-period, Mental-health.
INTRODUCTION
Postpartum depression has not been given much attention among families in the society which eats deeply
into new mother’s mental health and can affect the growth and development of her child. It is understood to
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue IX September 2025
www.rsisinternational.org
Page 4387
be postpartum blues, but postpartum depression is totally different from it as postpartum blues is a very
common but self- limited condition that begins shortly after childbirth and can present with a variety of
symptoms such as mood swings, irritability and tearfulness (1).
For a woman, the gestation of her first child has been identified as a central life event (2). The woman’s
mental self-representation enriches with the maternal component, thus leading her to review the
relationship with her own mother; the mental couple image gradually modifies with integration of the family
image, and the
marital relationship reorganized with the parental component (1). From a psychological perspective, in fact,
the pregnancy of the first baby involves the transition to motherhood, a major developmental period with
important implications for mothers, for the infant-mother relationship, and the infant's development (3).
There are other clinical aspects linked to pregnancy and delivery that are associated to the postpartum
depression condition. A complicated labour and birth characterized by longer length of labour and greater
pain, or medical intervention during delivery, can result in negative consequences, varying from maternal
distress to postpartum depression. Given that the nulliparous tend to be less self-confident in the maternal
role, and that being less self-confident has been associated with postpartum depression, labor and delivery
complications can be particularly difficult for first-time mothers. So, some socio-demographic characteristics,
such as a young age, or low level of education, or low income, may be considered linked to a higher
probability of developing postpartum depression.
Postpartum period is vulnerable to psychosis and depression which affects a significant number of women,
often ending in tragic consequences. In Western countries, the prevalence of postpartum depression varies
from 10 to 15% during the first year after birth. According to a systematic review of 47 studies from 18
low and lower-middle income countries, the prevalence is 18.6% (4). Postpartum depression can have far-
reaching negative consequences for a woman, her child, and the entire family. Depressive symptoms in the
postpartum period remain under-detected because many women do not seek help. This is problematic
because postpartum depressive symptoms are associated with marital problems (5), weakened social
support networks, later episodes of depression (6), child behavioral and emotional problems in early childhood
(7).
Moreover, assessment in the earliest part of the postpartum period could allow health care providers to
identify women who should be monitored closely throughout the postpartum period (8), because postpartum
depression has been perceived to have severely negative impacts and consequences on new mothers and her
family and it remain highly undetected as it may be classified as a spiritual problem within uninformed
community and society which will be left untreated (9, 10).
However, following multiple logistic regression, having postpartum blues, not getting help with caring for the
baby, experiencing intimate partner violence and having an unsupportive partner were identified as predictors
of postpartum depression. Proper management of postpartum illnesses by clinical or public health intervention
requires reliable identification of risks factors. Unfortunately, the risk factors related to Postpartum
depression are poorly understood (11). Hence, this study aimed to assess the contributing factors
influencing postpartum depression among mothers attending Neuropsychiatric hospital, Aro, Abeokuta, Ogun
State in the last 10 years.
METHODOLOGY
Study Area
The study was conducted in NeuroPsychiatric hospital, Aro, Abeokuta, Ogun State. The NeuroPsychiatric
Hospital Aro, Abeokuta is a mental health care Federal Institution with a rich historical legacy since inception
as a world acclaimed first purposed-built psychiatric hospital in Nigeria.
Study Design
The study adopted descriptive retrospective research design (used to analyzes past records or events to identify
patterns, relationships, and outcomes without manipulating variables) which focused on the assessment of
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue IX September 2025
www.rsisinternational.org
Page 4388
contributing factors to postpartum depressive signs among mothers who gave birth in the last 10 years
attending NeuroPsychiatric hospital, Aro, Abeokuta.
Study Population
The target population of this study consists of mothers who have been diagnosed of postpartum
depression in the last 10 years attending Neuropsychiatric hospital, Aro, Abeokuta, Ogun State.
Sample Size
The total number of mothers diagnosed with postpartum depression within the year 2014-2023 was used to
identify the number of population that will be used. A total of 50 case notes was able to be retrieved at the
record
department. All of these was used for the course of this study.
Table 1: The total number of mothers diagnosed with postpartum depression within the year 2014-2023
YEAR
NO OF CASE NOTES
2014
1
2015
5
2016
5
2017
6
2018
5
2019
5
2020
1
2021
7
2022
8
2023
7
TOTAL
50
Source: Patient File Records(NPHA), 2024.
Sampling Technique
A Purposive sampling technique was used to obtain data. This was adopted because it is use to selects
participants with specific characteristics relevant to the study, ensuring focused, rich, and meaningful data
collection, especially useful in exploring specialized health issues like postpartum depression.
Study Instrument and Validation
A standardized well-structured checklist was constructed using research questions relevant to the subject
matter. The checklist was reviewed, corrected and validated by three experts from the field of Nursing and
Midwifery.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue IX September 2025
www.rsisinternational.org
Page 4389
Reliability of Instrument
Reliability of instrument (data analysis method) ensures the same results is yielded no matter the number
of times the instrument is used. The reliability of the instrument of this study was tested using the pretest
method at the Outpatient department, Lantaro with 30 patients and it yielded a p-value of 0.70. The data
provided in the case notes is of great integrity and trustworthiness because it is obtained from the patient
during history taking and it would always remain the same until patient prove otherwise.
Method of data collection
Data was collected through document analysis of record books and journals made available at the research
setting. The researcher collected the necessary data needed and analyzed them in an appropriate technique.
Case notes of patients who attend the General medical practice clinic was sourced for at the Record
department.
Ethical Considerations
A permission letter was obtained from College of Nursing Science, Oba Ademola II School of
Midwifery, Idi Aba. Ethical clearance was obtained from Neuro-Psychiatric hospital, Aro, Abeokuta, before
the study was carried out to fulfill all ethical honour. The informed consent to carry out the research was
sourced out from the patients’ case notes. Confidentiality of the information gotten was maintained and will
be strictly used for academic purposes.
Data Analysis
The data generated was analyzed and processed using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS)
version 26. The results were represented using findings as headings, percentage and bar graphs. A
quantitative analysis method was used to report findings.
RESULTS
Socio-Demographic
Table 2: Socio-Demographic data of the patients. Sample size = 50
Frequency
Percentage
Age (years)
21-30
33
66.0%
31-40
13
26.0%
41-50
4
8.0%
Mean age±SD
30.00±6.48
Ethnicity
Fulani
3
6.0%
Hausa
7
14.0%
Igbo
9
18.0%
Yoruba
31
62.0%
Occupation
Corp member
1
2.0%
Student
6
12.0%
Self employed
31
62.0%
Unemployed
12
24.0%
Marital status
Divorced
4
8.0%
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue IX September 2025
www.rsisinternational.org
Page 4390
Married
39
78.0%
Single
7
14.0%
Religion
0.0%
Christianity
28
56.0%
Islam
17
34.0%
Others
5
10.0%
Table 2 shows the socio-demographic data of the patients. A total of 66.0% were within 21-30 years,
26.0% were within 31-40 years, 8.0% were within 41-50 years respectively with a mean age of 30.00±6.48
years. The ethnicity of the respondents was Fulani (6.0%), Hausa (14.0%), Igbo (18.0%) and Yoruba
(62.0%). The occupation of the respondents was Corps member (2.0%), student (12.0%), and self-employed
(62.0%) while (24.0%) were unemployed. A total of 8.0% were divorced, 78.0% were married and 14.0%
were single. The respondents practiced Christianity (56.0%), Islam (28.0%) and other religion (10.0%).
Table 3: Medical History of the Patients
Frequency
Percentage
1
2.0
2
4.0
7
14.0
5
10.0
3
6.0
1
2.0
1
2.0
1
2.0
29
58.0
40
80.0
8
16.0
2
4.0
10
20.0
40
80.0
18
36.0
32
64.0
Field Survey, 2024.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue IX September 2025
www.rsisinternational.org
Page 4391
Table 3 shows the medical history of the patients. A total of 2.0% had history of delay in speech development
when growing up, 4.0% had history of diabetes mellitus, caesarean section 14.0%, 10.0% had case of
hypertension in pregnancy, 6.0% had oedema, and 2.0% had surgical history of removed breast lumps,
gestational diabetes and tremor respectively. A total of 58.0% had nil medical history. The duration of illness
showed that 80.0% were ill between 1-5 years and 16.0% were ill between 6-10 years and 4.0% were above
10 years. A total of 20.0% had family history of psychiatric illness. A total of 36.0% had suicidal and
homicidal ideation.
Table 4: Treatment History of Patients
Previous treatment
Frequency
Percentage
Orthodox at a private hospital
5
10.0
Orthodox at a private hospital,
spiritual therapy
3
6.0
Orthodox at a psychiatric hospital
1
2.0
Orthodox at FMC
1
2.0
Private hospital at Oyo State
1
2.0
Spiritual therapy
18
36.0
Treated at home by family member
3
6.0
Nil
18
36.0
Field Survey, 2024.
Table 4 shows the previous treatment history of the patients was orthodox at a private hospital (10.0%),
orthodox at a private hospital and spiritual therapy (6.0%), orthodox at a psychiatric hospital (2.0%),
orthodox at FMC (2.0%), private hospital at Oyo state (2.0%), spiritual therapy (36.0%) and treated at home
by family member (6.0%).
Table 5: Obstetric History of the Patients
Parity status
Delivery mode
Frequency
Percentage
1
Vaginal delivery, eventful
10
20.0
1
Vaginal delivery, uneventful
19
38.0
1
Caesarean section, eventful
1
2.0
2
Vaginal delivery, eventful with
prolonged labour and foetal distress
2
4.0
2
Vaginal delivery, haemorrhage during
childbirth, eventful
2
4.0
2
Vaginal delivery, uneventful
4
8.0
3
Vaginal delivery, uneventful
4
8.0
4
Caesarean section, eventful
2
4.0
4
Vaginal delivery, uneventful
2
4.0
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue IX September 2025
www.rsisinternational.org
Page 4392
6
Vaginal delivery, eventful
2
4.0
6
Vaginal delivery, uneventful
2
4.0
Field Survey, 2024.
Table 5 shows the obstetric history of the patients. Among those with a parity status, 20.0% had eventful
vaginal delivery, 38.0% had an uneventful vaginal delivery and 2.0% had and eventful caesarean section. For
those with two parity status, 4.0% had eventful vaginal delivery with prolonged labour and foetal distress,
4.0% had eventful vaginal delivery with haemorrhage during childbirth and 8.0% had an uneventful vaginal
delivery. A total of 8.0% of those with three parity level had an uneventful vaginal delivery while those
with four parity level had an eventful caesarean section (4.0%) and uneventful vaginal delivery (4.0%). A
total of 4.0% of those with six parity level had an eventful and uneventful vaginal delivery respectively.
Table 6 : Psychological Factors Contributing to the Incidence of Postpartum Depression Among the
Patients
Frequency
Percentage
Stressor
Psychological Factors
Conflict with father, history of maltreatment from step
mother
2
4.0
Domestic violence
2
4.0
Family problems leading to divorce
1
2.0
Financial difficulties
3
6.0
Got pregnant out of wedlock
3
6.0
Has extramarital affairs before becoming pregnant
and unsure of paternity of child
1
2.0
Infant was diagnosed with talipes
1
2.0
Job loss during pregnancy
1
2.0
Relationship issue with husband
4
8.0
Husband infidelity
1
2.0
Thinking about husband not coming home regularly
1
2.0
Marital problems; domestic violence, currently
separated from husband
1
2.0
Field Survey, 2024.
Table 6 shows the psychological factors contributing to the incidence of postpartum depression among the
patients. Conflict with father and history of maltreatment from step mother (4.0%), domestic violence
(4.0%), family problems leading to divorce (2.0%), financial difficulties (6.0%), pregnancy out of wedlock
(6.0%), extramarital affairs prior pregnancy and uncertain about paternity of child (2.0%), infant was
diagnosed with talipes (2.0%), job loss during pregnancy (2.0%), relationship issue with husband (8.0%),
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue IX September 2025
www.rsisinternational.org
Page 4393
husband infidelity (2.0%), thinking about husband not coming home regularly (2.0%) and marital
problems; domestic violence, currently separated from husband (2.0%) were the psychological factors
contributing to the incidence of postpartum depression among the patients.
Table 7: Obstetric Factors Contributing to the Incidence of Postpartum Depression Among the Patients.
Obstetric factors
Frequency
Percentage
Had breastfeeding difficulties
2
4.0
Had vacuum assisted delivery which was prolonged
1
2.0
Not the sexual preference of mother
1
2.0
Postpartum haemorrhage after delivery
1
2.0
Pregnancy and postpartum complications
1
2.0
Labour difficulties
3
6.0
Hypertension
1
2.0
Postpartum events
1
2.0
Wanted a baby boy after multiple girls because her
husband will send her packing
2
4.0
Field Survey, 2024.
Table 7 show the obstetric factors contributing to the incidence of postpartum depression among the patients
include breastfeeding difficulties (4.0%), prolonged vacuum assisted delivery (2.0%), not birthing the
sexual preference of mother (2.0%), postpartum haemorrhage (2.0%), pregnancy and postpartum
complications (2.0%), labour difficulties (6.0%), hypertension (2.0%), postpartum events (2.0%), desire to
have a baby boy after five girls (2.0%) and after three girls (2.0%) so the husband will not send her packing.
Table 8: Social Factors Contributing to the Incidence of Postpartum Depression Among the Patients
Social factors
Frequency
Percentage
Social support
Has good social support
27
54.0
No social support
23
46.0
Social history
Background use of shisha 3 years ago, had baby
out of wedlock, breastfeeding difficulties faced
2
4.0
Drinks alcohol occasionally
4
8.0
Has two children for two different men
1
2.0
History of alcohol and substance abuse
8
16.0
Nil
35
70.0
Field Survey, 2024.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue IX September 2025
www.rsisinternational.org
Page 4394
On the social support, table 8 show that 54.0% had good social support, while 46.0% had no social support.
The social history of the patients showed that 4.0% had background use of shisha 3 years ago, had baby out
of wedlock, breastfeeding difficulties faced, 8.0% had history of alcohol drinking, 2.0% had two children for
two different men and 16.0% had history of alcohol and substance abuse.
Table 9: Presenting Complaints of the Patients
Frequency
Percentage
History of irrational speech, violent behavior
19
38.0
Insomnia
36
72.0
Nonchalant attitude towards baby, Expresses she
has a feeling of dying
7
14.0
Feeling guilt
2
4.0
Selectively mute
5
10.0
Forgetfulness
5
10.0
Poor appetite
12
24.0
Poor social interaction
5
10.0
Forgetfulness
3
6.0
Withdraw to self
6
12.0
Banging and shaky head
3
6.0
Hear and see strange things in clearn
Consciousness
15
30.0
Believes family has malevolent intention
towards her
6
12.0
Irritable at little or no provocation
9
18.0
Absent minded
4
8.0
Visual and auditory hallucination
10
20.0
Irrational and incoherent speech
9
18.0
Extravagant spending
3
6.0
Restlessness
22
44.0
Suicidal attempt
3
6.0
Field Survey, 2024.
Table 9 shows the presenting complaints of the patients. A total of 38.0% had history of irrational speech,
36.0% had episodes of insomnia, 6.0% presented forgetfulness, banging and shaky head, overthinking,
extravagant spending, poor personal hygiene, suicidal attempt, aimless wandering and irrational thoughts as
complaints respectively. In addition, 14.0% had records of nonchalant attitude towards baby, hear unseen
people in clear consciousness and believes family has malevolent intention towards her respectively.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue IX September 2025
www.rsisinternational.org
Page 4395
Furthermore, 20.0% had visual and auditory hallucination, 30.0% hear and see strange things in clear
consciousness, 44.0% were restlessness and 6.0% had suicidal attempt.
Table 10: Premorbid Personality of the Patients
Frequency
Percentage
Stubborn
4
8.0
Not sociable
4
8.0
Religious
3
6.0
Happy
4
8.0
Easy going
6
12.0
Gentle
6
12.0
Introvert
9
18.0
Good relationship with family members
3
6.0
Extrovert
5
10.0
Sociable
3
6.0
Hardworking
3
6.0
Field Survey, 2024.
Table 10 shows the premorbid personality of the patients. The personality showed that the patients were
stubborn (8.0%), not sociable (8.0%), religious (6.0%), happy (8.0%), easy going (12.0%), gentle (12.0%),
introvert (18.0%), extrovert (10.0%) and had good relationship with family members (6.0%). Furthermore,
some patients sociable (6.0%), hardworking (6.0%).
Table 4.6: Insight of the patients
Frequency
Percentage
Lack insight, not oriented about the three spheres of
life
27
54.0
Insightful, hallucination is present, oriented to three
spheres of life
10
20.0
Oriented to three spheres of life, memory intact,
coherent and rational speech
9
16.0
Alert and fully oriented to time, place and person,
memory intact, judgement fair but lacks insight
5
10.0
Field Survey, 2024.
Table 11 shows the insight record of the patients. A total of 54.0% lacked insight, not oriented about the
three spheres of life. In addition, 20.0% was insightful, hallucination is present, oriented to three spheres of
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue IX September 2025
www.rsisinternational.org
Page 4396
life; calm, conscious and alert, mute and alert and fully oriented to time, place and person, memory intact,
while 16.0% was oriented to three spheres of life, memory intact, coherent and rational speech.
DISCUSSION
In this study, factors contributing to the incidence of postpartum depression among the patients were
identified under psychological, obstetric and social factors. The psychological factors influencing
postpartum depression include poor relationship with family members, cases of divorce due to family
issues, financial problems, extramarital affairs, marital issues, and domestic violence. This was in consistent
with the work of Inthaphatha, et al. (12) who opined that family crisis, extramarital affairs, unintended
pregnancy, management of delivery cost by borrowing and selling or mortgaging assets due to financial
incapability and intimate partner violence were identified as risk factors.
The findings of this present study also revealed that lack of social support from spouse/partner, and mother as
well as history of alcohol and substance abuse, previous history of psychiatric illness like epilepsy and
seizure disorder (16.0%), mental and behavioural disorder (10.0%), previous depression (2.0%) and relapse
of postpartum depression (6.0%) were seen as risk factors of postpartum depression. This is in agreement
with the report of Agrawal, et al. (13) who identified lack of spousal and social support, previous psychiatric
illnesses, a negative birth experience, and a history of abuse as major risk factors.
The present study shows that breastfeeding difficulties (2.0%), pregnancy and postpartum complications
(2.0%), parity status and baby gender, multiple birth, lack of insight regarding the three spheres of life and
lower socioeconomic factors were factors contributing to the incidence of postpartum depression among the
patients. This commensurate with the study of Agrawal et al. (13) who reported that lower socioeconomic
factors, parity status, and multiple births were found to have a consistent correlation with postpartum
depression. In addition, the work of Alao et al. (14) showed that poor breastfeeding support, polygamous
family setting and baby gender were found to be significantly associated with postpartum depression.
The medical history of the patients showed history of caesarean section, hypertension, high blood pressure,
oedema, surgical operation and primary diagnosis with postpartum depression with psychosis and this was
consistent with results of previous studies (11, 12, 13).
CONCLUSION
This study established that postpartum depression is a multifactorial condition influenced by psychological,
obstetric, and social determinants. Key psychological contributors included poor marital relationships,
domestic violence, financial challenges, and previous psychiatric history. Obstetric and medical conditions
such as caesarean section, hypertension, breastfeeding difficulties, and multiple births were also significant
risk factors.
RECOMMENDATION
1. Healthcare providers should implement family-centered interventions that involve spouses and
immediate family members in maternal care, emphasizing the importance of emotional, financial, and
social support to reduce the risk of postpartum depression.
2. Screening for mental health issues such as previous psychiatric illness, depression, and substance abuse
should be incorporated into antenatal and postnatal care services to enable early detection and prompt
intervention.
3. Public health campaigns and hospital-based programs should promote awareness of postpartum
depression, breastfeeding support, and maternal self-care, especially among women from low socio-
economic backgrounds, to reduce stigma and improve health-seeking behavior.
DECLARATION
Data Availability Request
The data generated during the study will be provided on a reasonable request from the corresponding author.
Declaration of interests Statement
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue IX September 2025
www.rsisinternational.org
Page 4397
We wish to confirm that there are no known conflicts of interest associated with this publication, and there has
been no significant financial support for this work that could have influenced its outcome.
Funding Statement
There was no grant for this research from any funding body.
REFERENCES
1. Agrawal, I., Mehendale, A. M., & Malhotra, R. (2022). Risk factors of postpartum depression. Cureus,
14(10).
2. Akbari, V., Rahmatinejad, P., Shater, M. M., Vahedian, M., & Khalajinia, Z. (2020). Investigation of
the relationship of perceived social support and spiritual well-being with postpartum depression.
Journal of Education and Health Promotion, 9(1), 174.
3. Alao, M. A., Ibrahim, O. R., Elo-Ilo, J. C., Briggs, D. C., Nri-Ezedi, C. A., Diala, U. M., ... & Tongo,
O. O. (2024). Determinants of Tangible Breastfeeding Support Among Health Workers: A Multicenter
Cross-Sectional Study. Journal of Human Lactation, 40(4), 522-534.
4. Alpern, L, Lyons-Ruth, K. (2019) Preschool children at social risk: Chronicity and timing of maternal
depressive symptoms and child behavior problems at school and at home. Development
and Psychopathology. 5(03):371–387.
5. Darvill, T., Heaslip, V., Drysdale, L., & Barrass, K. (2019). Historic landscapes and mental well-being.
6. Inthaphatha, S., Yamamoto, E., Louangpradith, V., Takahashi, Y., Phengsavanh, A., Kariya, T.
(2020) Factors associated with postpartum depression among women in Vientiane Capital, Lao
People’s Democratic Republic: A cross-sectional study. PLoS ONE 15(12).
7. Letourneau, N. L., Dennis, C. L., Benzies, K., Duffett-Leger, L., Stewart, M.,
Tryphonopoulos, P. D., Watson, W. (2019). Postpartum depression is a family affair: Addressing the
impact on mothers, fathers, and children. Issues in Mental Health Nursing. 33(7):445–457.
8. Martins, S. (2018). The role of spirituality in the lives of women coping with early motherhood and
postpartum depression (Doctoral dissertation, Université Saint-Paul/Saint Paul University).
9. Rayce, S. B., Rasmussen, I. S., Væver, M. S., & Pontoppidan, M. (2020). Effects of parenting
interventions for mothers with depressive symptoms and an infant: systematic review and meta-
analysis. BJPsych open, 6(1), e9.
10. Slomian, J., Honvo, G., Emonts, P., Reginster, J. Y., & Bruyère, O. (2019). Consequences of maternal
postpartum depression: A systematic review of maternal and infant outcomes. Women's health, 15,
1745506519844044.
11. Smorti, M., Ponti, L., & Pancetti, F. (2019). A comprehensive analysis of post-partum depression risk
factors: The role of socio-demographic, individual, relational, and delivery characteristics. Frontiers in
public health, 7, 295.
12. Upadhyaya, S. K., Sharma, A., & Raval, C. M. (2014). Postpartum psychosis: risk factors
identification. North American journal of medical sciences, 6(6), 274.
13. US Preventive Services Task Force. (2016). Screening for depression in adults: US preventive services
task force recommendation statement. JAMA. ;315(4):380–387.
14. Wang, Z., Liu, J., Shuai, H., Cai, Z., Fu, X., Liu, Y., ... & Yang, B. X. (2021). Mapping global
prevalence of depression among postpartum women. Translational psychiatry, 11(1), 543.