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Nanoparticles: Classification, Synthesis, Characterization, and
Applications
Dr. Sandip C. Atram, Dr. Vikrant P. wankhede, Dr.Nishan N. Bobade, Dr. S. D. Pande., Atharv Sandip
Jawanjal
Department of Pharmaceutics, Vidya Bharti College of Pharmacy, Amravati, Maharashtra, India
*Corresponding Author
DOI: https://doi.org/10.51244/IJRSI.2025.1208004120
Received: 08 Oct 2025; Accepted: 15 Oct 2025; Published: 24 October 2025
ABSTRACT
Objective: This review aims to present a comprehensive overview of nanoparticles, focusing on their
classification, physicochemical properties, synthesis methods, characterization techniques, and diverse
scientific applications.
Methods: Relevant studies and review articles were collected from major databases such as PubMed,
ScienceDirect, SpringerLink, and Scopus. Various chemical, physical, and biological synthesis approaches
were analyzed, along with modern characterization techniques such as electron microscopy, spectroscopy, and
thermal analysis.
Results: Findings indicate that nanoparticles possess distinctive properties, including high surface-to-volume
ratio and tunable morphology, which enhance their efficiency in drug delivery, imaging catalysis, and energy
storage. Biologically synthesized nanopartilces demonstrated better biocompatibility and reduced toxicity
compared to chemically prepared ones
Conclusion: Nanoparticles represent a rapidly advancing field with vast biomedical and industrial
applications. However, biosafety, toxicity, and environmental concerns require further systematic investigation
to ensure their safe and sustainable use.
Keywords: Nanoparticles, Synthesis, Characterization, Drug Delivery, Biomedical Applications, Toxicity
ABSTRACT
Nanoparticles, typically defined as particles within the size range of 1–100 nm, have emerged as a pivotal class
of materials owing to their distinctive physicochemical characteristics. This review provides a comprehensive
overview of nanoparticles, encompassing their classification, physicochemical attributes, methods of synthesis,
and diverse applications across scientific and industrial domains. Their unique properties, largely attributed to
their nanoscale dimensions and high surface-to-volume ratio, have significantly broadened their utility in fields
such as medicine, electronics, energy, and environmental sciences.
Various synthesis approaches—including chemical, physical, and biologically mediated methods—are
critically discussed, along with state-of-the-art characterization techniques such as electron microscopy,
spectroscopy, and thermal analysis, which enable precise evaluation of nanoparticle structure, morphology,
and functionality. While nanoparticles present numerous advantages, challenges related to toxicity, biosafety,
and environmental impact remain key considerations that require systematic investigation.
In terms of applications, nanoparticles have demonstrated remarkable potential in drug delivery, diagnostic
imaging, environmental remediation, catalysis, and energy storage technologies. Their ability to facilitate
targeted therapeutic delivery, enhance imaging resolution, remove environmental pollutants, and improve
energy efficiency underscores their transformative role in advancing modern science and technology.
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In conclusion, nanoparticles represent a rapidly evolving research frontier with significant industrial and
biomedical implications. However, continued interdisciplinary efforts are essential to fully exploit their
potential while addressing associated safety and regulatory concerns.
INTRODUCTION
Nanotechnology is the branch of science that deals with the study and manipulation of materials at an
extremely small scale. The term originates from the Greek word nanos (through the Latin nanus), meaning
“dwarf” or “very small”4. Nanoparticles (NPs) exhibit unique physical and chemical characteristics because of
their nanoscale size and high surface area. These properties make them highly suitable for diverse applications,
including environmental protection, medical diagnostics and therapy, imaging, energy research, and catalysis2.
Structurally, nanoparticles are complex and typically consist of two to three layers: a functionalized surface
layer containing small molecules, polymers, surfactants, or metal ions; a shell layer that is chemically different
and can be deliberately introduced; and a core, which represents the fundamental component of the
nanoparticle1. Their synthesis can be achieved through both chemical and biological methods.
Chemical synthesis of nanoparticles often involves toxic reagents, which can lead to various harmful effects.
In contrast, biological synthesis offers a safer and more eco-friendly approach. This method employs
microorganisms, enzymes, fungi, or plants and their extracts for nanoparticle production4.
Nanoparticles serve as the fundamental building blocks of nanotechnology, exhibiting dimensions within the
range of 1–100 nm. Depending on their composition, nanoparticles can be derived from a variety of sources,
including carbon-based materials, metals, metal oxides, and organic compounds. Their nanoscale size imparts
unique structural and functional characteristics that distinguish them from their bulk counterparts and enables
their application across diverse scientific and technological domains.
Nanoparticles can exist in multiple shapes and dimensions. Zero-dimensional structures, such as nanodots, are
confined at a single point in all directions. One-dimensional materials, like graphene, extend only along one
parameter. Two-dimensional structures, such as carbon nanotubes, possess both length and breadth, while
three-dimensional nanoparticles, including gold nanoparticles, exhibit all three spatial dimensions.
Nanoparticles are available in a wide range of sizes, shapes, and structural configurations, including spherical,
cylindrical, tubular, conical, hollow-core, spiral, and flat morphologies, among others1. These diverse
geometries significantly influence their physicochemical properties, functionality, and potential applications in
various fields.
Nanoparticles (NPs) can be synthesized using three main approaches: physical, chemical, and biological. The
physical method is generally categorized as a top-down approach, whereas chemical and biological methods
are grouped under the bottom-up approach. The biological route is also widely recognized as the green
synthesis method of nanoparticles. Each of these approaches is further divided into specific techniques.
Common examples include lithography, chemical vapor deposition, sol–gel process, co-precipitation,
hydrothermal synthesis, electrospinning, laser ablation, sputtering, sonication, exploding wire method, and arc
discharge technique27.
Classification of Nanoparticles
Nanoparticles are broadly classified into three major types: organic, inorganic, and carbon-based.
1. Organic nanoparticles
Organic nanoparticles are formed from organic molecules and typically measure below 100 nm in size. They
are often referred to as nano capsules and are generally non-toxic as well as environmentally friendly.
Examples include ferritin, liposomes, micelles, and dendrimers, which act as highly sensitive polymers
when exposed to heat or light47.
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A. Dendrimers
Dendrimers are a novel class of polymers with controlled structures and nanometric dimensions. Commonly
ranging from 10 to 100 nm, they possess multiple functional groups on their surface, making them highly
suitable for drug delivery and imaging applications. In the pharmaceutical field, dendrimers have been
explored as NSAIDs, antimicrobials, anticancer agents, prodrugs, applications and as screening tools in
high-throughput drug development4.
B. Liposomes
Liposomes are spherical vesicles composed of one or more phospholipid bilayers and are widely explored as
drug delivery systems (DDS) in chemotherapy. Their advantages include easy functionalization, efficient
drug encapsulation, biocompatibility, and size controllability. However, despite the potential benefits, their
short circulation half-life remains a major limitation for clinical, although surface modifications can help
overcome this drawback39. The structural components of Liposome are illustrated in Figure 122
Figure 1 liposome and their structure
2. Inorganic nanoparticles
Inorganic nanoparticles are composed of non-carbon materials such as metals, metal oxides, and metal salts.
Depending on atomic packing, they can exhibit diverse shapes—including spheres, cylinders, ellipsoids,
cubes, oblate forms, and stars—while retaining the crystallinity of metal-based compounds21.
A. Metal based nanoparticles
The synthesis of metal-based nanoparticles to nanometric dimensions can follow either a top-down
(destructive) or bottom-up (constructive) approach2.
B. Gold nanoparticles
Gold nanoparticles are nanometer-sized particles with unique physical and chemical properties that enable
them to absorb and scatter visible as well as near-infrared light. They are considered highly stable, non-toxic,
and easy to synthesize. Owing to their remarkable characteristics—such as the quantum size effect and the
ability to assemble into diverse structures—gold nanoparticles serve as excellent model systems for scientific
research44.
C. Silver nanoparticles
The unique physicochemical properties of silver nanoparticles—such as electrical and thermal conductivity,
catalytic activity, and non-linear optical behaviour—have led to the development of numerous innovative
products and scientific applications.48
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D. Metal oxide-based nanoparticles
Metal oxide nanoparticles, owing to their small size and high surface area, are valuable in various
applications such as biosensors, bionanotechnology, and nanomedicine. Common examples include copper
oxide (CuO), titanium dioxide (TiO₂), and zinc oxide (ZnO).43
E. zinc oxide nanoparticles
ZnO nanoparticles are safe and biocompatible, making them ideal for use in textiles and surfaces that contact
human skin. They exhibit antibacterial activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, as
well as heat- and pressure-resistant spores.46
F. Titanium oxide nanoparticles
The antimicrobial activity of TiO₂ nanoparticles is influenced by their crystal structure, shape, and size. TiO₂
NPs are particularly responsive to oxidative stress due to the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS).
They have been shown to enhance the effectiveness of antibiotics—such as beta-lactams, cephalosporins,
aminoglycosides, lincosamides, and tetracyclines—against MRSA.43
3. Carbon-based nanoparticles
They are made of carbon atoms with Sp2 bonds. They include nano-diamonds, nano-horns, nano-onions,
grapheme, fullerenes, and single- This includes multi-walled carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, and
nanographite. Carbon materials are synthesized using three techniques: chemical vapor deposition, laser
ablation, and arch discharge.21
A. Carbon-nanotubes
CNTs have high specific surface area and oleophilic characteristics, making them ideal for developing an oil-
removing membrane with high penetration flux [30]. Carbon nanotubes come in two sizes: single-walled (0.4–
2 nm) and multi-walled (2–100 nm). Carbon nanotubes are composed of enrolled graphite sheets.41
B. Graphene
Carbon atoms are grouped hexagonally in a crystalline lattic that resembles
A two-dimensional (2D) grapheme represents honeycomb structures with lateral diameters ranging from micro
to millimetres. This material features high intrinsic strength, thermal conductivity, biocompatibility, and low
toxicity. The most significant benefits for biosensing49.
C. Fullerenes
Fullerenes are spherical carbon nanoparticles formed through Sp2 hybridization. The process produces round,
mono-layered fullerenes up to 8.3 nm and poly-layered fullerenes with diameters ranging from 4-36 nm.47
Advantage of Nanoparticles14
1. Nanoparticle surface characteristics and particle size can be easily modified to target medicines passively or
actively after parenteral administration.
2. Nanosized quantum dots based on immunofluorescence label specific germs for easy identification and
removal.
3. Nanotechnology is expanding throughout industries, including aquaculture, with numerous uses in nutrition.
4. Applications include reproduction, water purification, fishing, illness management, and reduced toxicity and
negative consequences.
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5. Biodegradable nanoparticles allow for prolonged medication release at the target site over days or weeks.
6. Nanoparticles are small enough to pass through tiny capillaries and be absorbed by cells, allowing for
effective drug accumulation at target areas.
7. Nanotechnology can improve fabric durability by increasing surface energy and area to volume ratio.
Disadvantage of Nanoparticles14
1. Nanoparticles' small size and large surface area make them extremely reactive in the cellular environment.
2. Non-biodegradable particles can collect at drug delivery sites, leading to chronic inflammation.
3. Nanoparticles have limited targeting capabilities, making it unable to terminate the therapy.
4. Nanotechnology is costly, with potential for significantly higher development costs.
5. Atomic bombs are now more accessible, powerful, and destructive to use.
Strategies for the Synthesis of Nanoparticles (NPs)
The synthesis of nanoparticles is generally classified into two main approaches: the bottom-up method and
the top-down method.
1. Bottom-Up Method
The bottom-up or constructive approach involves assembling materials from atoms or molecules into
clusters and ultimately into nanoparticles. This method allows precise control over particle size, shape, and
composition. The structural components of method is illustrated in fig.2 Some of the most widely used bottom-
up techniques for nanoparticle synthesis include:
a. Sol–gel method
b. Chemical vapor deposition (CVD)
c. Pyrolysis
d. Electrospinning
Figure 2 Bottom Method26
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A. Sol–Gel Method
The sol–gel process is a wet chemical technique in which a chemical solution acts as a precursor for forming
a network of discrete particles. In this method, a sol—a colloidal suspension of solid particles in a liquid—
transforms into a gel, consisting of solid macromolecules dispersed in a solvent. Commonly, metal oxides and
metal chlorides are used as precursors. Upon mixing the precursor with the liquid medium through shaking,
stirring, or sonication, a liquid–solid phase transition occurs, leading to the formation of nanoparticles1. The
structural components of method is illustrated in fig.328
Figure 3 Sole Gel Method
B. Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)
Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) is a widely used technique in which a solid material is deposited onto a
heated substrate through chemical reactions occurring in the gaseous or vapor phase. In thermal CVD, the
reaction is activated at elevated temperatures, typically above 900 °C. This method has been employed to
produce nanocomposite powders; for example, a SiC/Si₃N₄ composite powder was successfully synthesized
at 1400 °C using SiH₄, CH₄, WF₆, and H₂ as precursor gases16. The structural components of method is
illustrated in fig.431
Figure 4 Chemical Vapor Deposition
C. Pyrolysis
In spray pyrolysis, a precursor solution is first prepared, typically by dissolving a metal salt in a suitable
solvent. This solution is then atomized into fine droplets and introduced into a heated furnace. Inside the
furnace, various processes such as solvent evaporation, solute diffusion, drying, precipitation, reactions
between the precursor and surrounding gases, pyrolysis, or sintering occur, ultimately leading to the
formation of fine nanoparticles17. The structural components of method is illustrated in fig.538
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Figure 5 Pyrolysis
D. Spin Coating / Spinning Disc Reactor (SDR) Method
The spin coating process involves the uniform deposition of a solution onto a substrate through centrifugal
force, producing a constant conversion in the vapor above the substrate. The evaporation rate during spin
coating is generally uniform, making it a critical step in semiconductor fabrication for creating thin,
homogeneous photoresist films.
For nanoparticle synthesis, a spinning disc reactor (SDR) incorporates a rotating disc that helps regulate
physical parameters such as temperature. To prevent undesired chemical reactions, the reactor is typically
filled with inert gases like nitrogen. The precursor solution and water are fed into the SDR, which rotates at
controlled speeds, facilitating fusion, precipitation, collection, and drying of the nanoparticles. Key factors
influencing the synthesis process include liquid flow rate, disc rotation speed, precursor-to-solvent ratio,
feed location, and the characteristics of the disc surface, all of which allow precise control over
nanoparticle formation and properties18. The structural components of method is illustrated in fig.641
Figure 6 Spin Coating
2. Top-Down Method
The top-down approach, also known as destructive synthesis, involves breaking down bulk materials into
smaller fragments, which are subsequently converted into nanoparticles. This method is primarily physical and
is widely used for large-scale nanoparticle production. The structural components of method is illustrated in
figure no.744 Common techniques under the top-down approach include:
a. Thermal decomposition method
b. Lithography
c. Laser ablation
d. Sputtering
e. Mechanical milling
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Figure 7 Top-Down Method
A. Thermal Decomposition Method
The thermal decomposition method is an endothermic process in which heat induces the chemical
breakdown of a compound by disrupting its chemical bonds. The specific temperature at which a substance
begins to chemically decompose is referred to as its decomposition temperature. This method is commonly
employed in nanoparticle synthesis to produce fine, uniform particles through controlled thermal treatment19.
B. Lithography
Top-down lithographic techniques, either alone or in combination with other fabrication methods such as
reactive ion etching (RIE), are widely employed to produce nanoparticles with controlled size and shape.
Photolithography, a conventional top-down approach, has been extensively developed for the semiconductor
industry and other applications requiring precise micro- and nano-patterns. Ion beam and electron-beam (e-
beam) lithography enable direct writing of ultra-small structures with extremely fine patterns, as well as the
creation of masks or molds for use in other lithographic processes. However, these techniques are limited by
low throughput and high cost. Nanoimprint lithography (NIL) addresses these limitations by replicating
nanostructures from a master mold in a simple, parallel, and cost-effective manner, providing an efficient
solution for top-down nanoparticle fabrication20.
C. Laser Ablation
Laser ablation involves the use of pulsed lasers to remove material from the surface of a substrate, enabling
the creation of micro- and nanostructures. This technique is widely applied in the fabrication of metals,
ceramics, polymers, and glasses. By focusing a laser beam onto the material, energy is absorbed, leading to
melting, evaporation, or ejection of the surface material. The combined process of vaporization and melt
ejection, which occurs consistently during laser machining, defines the mechanism of laser ablation and is
integral to nanoparticle production19.
D. Sputtering
Sputtering is a physical vapor deposition technique in which a target material is bombarded with high-energy
inert gas ions, typically argon, causing atoms and clusters to be ejected from the target surface. In this process,
a controlled flow of inert gas is introduced into a vacuum chamber, and the cathode is electrically energized to
generate a self-sustaining plasma. The ejected material forms a vapor stream, which travels through the
chamber and deposits onto a substrate, creating a thin film or surface coating. This method is widely used for
producing nanoparticles and uniform coatings with precise control over thickness and composition12. The
structural components of Sputtering is illustrated in figure no.8
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Figure 8 Sputtering
E. Mechanical Milling Method
Mechanical milling involves placing a suitable powder charge with an appropriate milling medium into a high-
energy mill. The main aims of this process are particle size reduction and the formation of new phases. During
milling, the balls may either fall freely, impacting the powder and other balls, or roll along the chamber surface
in layered motion. The extent of energy transferred to the powder depends on the kinetics of the milling or
alloying process. This technique is widely utilized in powder metallurgy, mineral processing, and ceramic
industries. High-energy ball mills such as tumbler mills, vibratory mills, and planetary ball mills are commonly
used for these purposes15. The structural components of Mechanical Milling Method is illustrated in figure
no.929
Figure 9 Mechanical Milling Method
Characterization parameters of NPs
Using advanced microscopic techniques such as SEM and TEM, AFM identifies nanoparticles based on their
size, shape, and surface charge. The average particle diameter, size distribution, and charge all impact the
physical stability and distribution of nanoparticles in living systems. Various technologies, such as nuclear
magnetic resonance, optical microscopy, electron microscopy, dynamic light scattering, and atomic force
microscopy, are used to determine particle sizes.26
1. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) can determine both the size and qualitative features of nanoparticles.
Chemical shift provides specific information about the physicochemical status of nanoparticle components, in
addition to sensitivity to molecular mobility.26
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2. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)
DSC analysis was performed to assess the physical condition of the medication in nanoparticles. The natural
medication, polymer, and NPs all weighed approximately 2 mg. The sealed standard aluminium pans were
heated at 10°C/min under nitrogen environment and scanned between 25°C and 300°C. As a reference, use an
empty aluminum pan.13
3. Particle size
The particle sizes of NPs were determined using a scanning electron microscope and ranged from 350 nm to
600 nm, depending on the polymer content (35). Particle size and shape are the two most important
characteristics for NPs. Nanoformulation is mostly used for drug release and targeted distribution. Data
suggests that particles have an impact on the released pharmaceuticals. The loaded medication will be exposed
to the particle's surface, resulting in faster drug release. Smaller particles often form foam clumps during
storage. Connect stability to reduced particle size. The degradation rate of PLGA increased as particle size
increased.50
4. Zeta potential
The zeta potential is commonly used to explain the surface charge of nanoparticles. The electrical potential of
particles is reflected in the medium in which they are disseminated, influenced by their composition. NPs
having a zeta potential exceeding + 30 mV can be suspended due to their surface charge, which precludes
aggregation.51
5. UV- visible absorption spectroscopy
Absorbance spectroscopy measures a solution's optical properties. The sample solution is lit and the light
absorption is measured. Absorbance can be measured at different wavelengths. Beer-Lambert's law can be
used to calculate the concentration of a solution based on its absorbance. The UV-visible spectrophotometer
measures absorbance at several wavelengths, including 410 nm.22
6. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
This technique for characterizing NPs provides insights into their morphology, shape, size, chemical content,
and orientation. During SEM characterisation, the surface of the sample is measured by secondary and
backscattered electrons emitted when the NP solution is turned into dry powder and put on a sample holder.
Nanoparticle morphology can be assessed by evaluating surface depression and elevation, as electron release
from nanomaterials changes based on surface.23
7. Dynamic light scattering (DLS)
The particle size and size distribution of produced particles were analyzed using a particle size analyzer,
dynamic light scattering at a fixed angle of 173 at 25°C, and photon correlation spectroscopy. The average
volume diameters and polydispersity index were calculated. Samples were analyzed three times.52
Method of evaluation for release of drug
The following techniques can be employed to assess the in vitro release of drugs from nanoparticles (NPs):
1. Adjacent diffusion cells utilizing synthetic or natural membranes.
2. Dialysis bag diffusion method.
3. Reverse dialysis bag technique.
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4. Agitation followed by centrifugation or ultracentrifugation.
5. Centrifugal ultrafiltration or other ultrafiltration approaches.
Typically, controlled agitation combined with centrifugation is used for release studies. The dialysis method is
often favoured because separating nanoparticles from the release medium can be time-consuming and
technically challenging. There are five possible mechanisms for drug release: (a) the drug may be adsorbed on
the surface, (b) diffusion through the nanoparticle matrix, (c) diffusion through the polymer shell of nano
capsules, (d) erosion of the nanoparticle matrix, or (e) a combination of diffusion and erosion. The kinetics of
drug release from nanoparticles can be described using a biexponential function: C = A e^(-Bt), where C
represents the drug concentration remaining in the nanoparticles at time t, and A and B are system-specific
constants (A corresponds to diffusion-controlled release, while B relates to erosion-controlled release).
Application of Nanoparticles25
Application of nanotechnology in the different field is summarised in table 1
Table 1: Application of nanotechnology in the different field.
Applied Field Applications / Examples
Chemicals and
Cosmetics
Nano medicines, medical devices, tissue engineering; nanoscale chemicals, paints,
coatings
Materials Nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, biopolymers, paints and coatings
Food Sciences Processing, nutraceutical food, nanocapsules
Environment & Energy Water and air purification filters, fuel cells, photovoltaic
Military & Energy Biosensors, weaponry, sensory improvement
Electronics Semiconductor chips, memory storage, photonics, optoelectronics
Scientific Tools Atomic force microscopy, microscopic techniques, scanning tunneling microscopy
Agriculture Atomic force microscopy, microscopic techniques, scanning tunneling microscopy
Nanoparticles In Drug Delivery System
Nanoparticle drug delivery focuses on maximizing drug efficacy and minimizing cytotoxicity. Fine-tuning
nanoparticle properties for effective drug delivery involves addressing the following factors. The surface-area-
to-volume ratio of nanoparticles can be altered to allow for more ligand binding to the surface.
Nanocarrier-Based Transdermal Delivery System
Routes of Penetration
Three potential pathways are often used to transport drug molecules across the SC appendageal
(transfollicular), transcellular (intracellular), and paracellular (intercellular).
Transcellular Route
In the transcellular pathway, molecules penetrate the matrix (cytoplasm) of dead keratinocytes and the lipids
surrounding them, which contain highly hydrated keratin, and drug molecules diffuse alternately in the
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aqueous and lipid phases. While this is the shortest pathway, molecules need to repeatedly pass through
lipophilic cell membranes and aqueous cell contents, which remains challenging for most molecules
Paracellular Route
The intercellular pathway is that in which drug molecules bypass keratinocytes and penetrate the skin through
the interstitial of cells tightly packed between keratinocytes. The tiny channels or gaps that form between
keratinocytes are mainly composed of lipids and are more permeable compared to lipid-soluble molecules.
Since the molecules do not pass directly through the cells, cell damage can be reduced. However, water-
soluble molecules do not readily pass through the intercellular matrix composed of lipids, and the natural
barrier functions of the skin (e.g., the tight arrangement of the SC and the presence 3 of 35 of a lipid layer)
may impede the penetration of certain molecules
Transfollicular Route53
The transfollicular route is a strategy for delivering drugs or other substances through hair follicles into the
skin, bypassing the stratum corneum. Hair follicles offer a deeper and more efficient pathway into the dermis
than the transdermal route, making them ideal for targeting skin conditions like alopecia and acne, or
for needle-free vaccination. Nanotechnology can enhance this delivery, and carriers like liposomes and
nanoparticles are used to improve drug penetration and release.
Nanocarriers for Transdermal Delivery
Nanocarriers are widely used in topical applications, including vesicular nanocarriers Kneading or slurry
method, solution or co-precipitation method, solvent evaporation, dry mixture, damp mixing, extrusion
(liposomes, transferosomes), lipid-based nanocarriers (solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers),
emulsion-based nanocarriers, polymeric nanocarriers, inorganic Cyclodextrins, drugs Significant enhancement
of drug solubility and stability Kidney toxicity nanoparticles, and inclusion complexes. Recently, these have
been utilized to deliver various drugs via the transdermal route54.
Transdermal delivery systems also have potential applications in the systemic treatment of psoriasis. To enable
effective drug penetration through the hyperkeratotic skin of psoriasis patient and enhance therapeutic efficacy,
shen et al.developed HA-modified liposome loaded with MTX and incorporated them into microneedles (HA-
MTX-Lipo MNs)58.The result showed that HA-MTX-Lipo MNS inhibits the progression of psoriasis and
reduce erythema scaling, and thickening of the skin by down regulating the expression of mRNA levels of pro-
inflammatory cytokines IL-23 and TNF-α shah P et al. used niosomes to deliver desoximeta-sone, which can
be used to treat a variety of skin condition such as allergic reactions, eczema, and psoriasis. Desoximeta-sone
loaded into niosomes increased the skin permeability of Desoximeta-sone compared to the raw drug59 He E et
al. developed a microemulsion-based drug delivery system for transdermal delivery in order to improve the
efficacy and permeability of indirubin. The In Vitro Skin Permeation and Deposition Study showed that the
accumulated drug exudation in the final formulation was 2.1-fold and 13.1-fold higher than that of the oil
solution and the aqueous solution, respectively; both the permeation and retention of the skin increased. This
preparation can improve psoriasis symptoms by down-regulating the expression of IL-17A, Ki67, and CD4+T,
providing great scalability for researchers to increase the concentration of targeted drugs60. Chamcheu J et al.
developed chitosan based nanoformulated (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG). In the imiquimod-induced
psoriasis-like dermatitis model in mice, nanoEGCG showed a 20-fold dose advantage over free EGCG,
representing a promising drug delivery strategy61.
The nano transdermal delivery system has excellent efficacy in the anti-inflammation of wounds. To keep the
area moist and decrease the risk of infection while hastening the healing process, a study by Zhang et al.
introduced a stimuli-responsive glycopeptide hydrogel (OBPG&MP)constructed from hyacinthine
polysaccharides, gallic acid-grafted ε-polylysine, and micelles loaded with paeoniflorin62. With each release of
therapeutic chemicals, the hydrogel responded to the inflammatory microenvironment of chronic wounds by
eliminat ing bacterial infection, neutralizing ROS, modifying macrophage polarization, suppressing
inflammation, and promoting vascular regeneration and extracellular matrix remodeling. Studies conducted in
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vivo and in vitro have shown how effective OBPG&MP is at modifying the wound microenvironment and
promoting skin tissue regeneration and remodeling in chronic wounds. Yang et al. prepared propolis
nanoparticles (PNPs) using the pH difference method and characterized them. In the full-thickness skin defect
model of mice, compared with the wounds of other groups, the wound healing of PNP treatment was 3–4 days
faster. Histological observation showed that the wounds treated with PNPs had tissue epithelium, hair follicles,
and dense collagen fibers, indicating that PNPs have the potential to become an ideal choice for wound-healing
applications63.
Kazemi M et al. prepared a piroxicam plasmid and combined it with iontophoresis therapy, which significantly
enhanced the permeability of the piroxicam plasmid and had a significant inhibitory effect on the inflammatory
response of wounds64.The dihydromyricetin loaded inclusion complex significantly reduced the M1
phenotypic transition in RAW264.7 cells, effectively restoring M2 polarization, there by shortening the
inflammatory period. The final formulation exhibited superior free radical scavenging activities, respectively
making them excellent candidates for promoting wound healing65. Schematic demonstration of various
nanocarriers is illustrated in figure 1056
Figure 10 Schematic demonstration of various nanocarriers
Nanocarrier-Based Transdermal Delivery Technology for Dermatological Therapy
Transdermal delivery technology, as a non-invasive drug delivery system, has received widespread attention in
recent years for dermatological therapy. Transdermal delivery technology can deliver drugs to the skin through
topical administration55. In the treatment of common dermatoses (such as psoriasis, vitiligo, skin cancers, etc.),
it has a more ideal effect compared to oral and injectable administration In addition, transdermal drug delivery
can also deliver medications into the bloodstream to treat various diseases56.Compared to traditional methods
such as oral, intravenous, and subcutaneous injection, it can avoid first-pass metabolism and gastrointestinal
side effects, offering the advantages of simplicity, convenience, and high patient compliance57.
Transdermal drug delivery technologies used for dermatoses in the past five years
Table.no.1
Disease Drug Delivery
System
Loaded Drug Characterization
Parameter
Drug
Properties
Advantages of
Penetration/Accumulation
Efficacy
Liposome ICG 600 µm height,
300 µm diameter
Improves drug
stability; drug
content in
skin 92.2%
Tumor growth inhibited
93.5%; good melanoma
candidate
Promising for
melanoma
therapy
Polymeric
nanoparticle
Polydopamine 100 ± 10 nm Improves
bioavailability
Enhances penetration &
retention; Cu-PDA NPs
Synergistic
potential for
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
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Page 4633
Skin
Cancer66,67
(PDA) (PDA) & skin
permeability
give photothermal effect
(~50.4%); effective with
NIR
skin cancer
Drug Delivery
System
Loaded Drug Characterization
Parameter
Drug
Properties
Advantages of
Penetration/Accumulation
Efficacy
68,59-
Psoriasis
Niosome Desoximetasone 374.80 ± 9.48 nm,
PDI 0.289 ± 0.01,
zeta potential
−63.83 ± 4.26
mV
Improves
therapeutic
efficacy and
targeting;
reduces
adverse
effects;
increases
patient
compliance
Increased skin permeability
of Desoximetasone
compared to raw drug
Used for
allergic
reactions,
eczema, and
psoriasis
Microemulsion Indirubin 84.37 nm, PDI
<0.2, zeta
potential 0 ~ −20
mV
Increases
solubility and
bioavailability
Transdermal flux 47.34 ±
3.59 µg/cm²; retention 8.77
± 1.26 µg/cm² at 24 h
Improves
psoriasis
symptoms by
down-
regulating IL-
17A, Ki67,
CD4+T
Solid lipid
nanoparticle
Cyclosporine A 216 ± 5 nm Increases
solubility
Skin permeation (pig ear
model): 1.0 mg delivered
with transdermal
permeation
Topical
administration
avoids
systemic side
effects
Metal
nanoparticle
Epigallocatechin
gallate (EGCG)
211.3 nm, PDI
0.132
Improves
solubility and
bioavailability
Controlled release: ~50% in
6 h, ~100% in 24 h
Induced
differentiation;
decreased
proliferation
and
inflammation
with 4-fold
dose
advantage
Drugs Given By Nanoparticles69-74
Table no.2
Disease /
Indicatio
n
Nanoparticl
e Type
Drug /
Active
Agent
Characterization
/ Size, Zeta, etc.
Advantages /
Observations
Reference
Cancer Liposomal
(Lipoplatin)
Cisplatin ~110 nm Better tumor
accumulation,
reduced systemic
toxicity
Lipoplatin (liposomal
cisplatin),
[Wikipedia](https://en.wikiped
ia.org/wiki/Lipoplatin)
Breast
cancer
SPION (iron
oxide NP)
Doxorubic
in (DOX)
Magnetic NP
conjugation;
uptake in
MCF‑7,
MDA‑MB‑231
Enhanced
cytotoxicity,
targeted delivery +
hyperthermia
synergy
Catalano et al.
Superparamagnetic iron oxide
nanoparticles conjugated with
doxorubicin
([arXiv](https://arxiv.org/abs/1
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue IX September 2025
Page 4634
911.05378))
Alzheime
r’s / CNS
Polymeric
NP
Tacrine — Increased brain
concentration,
lower dose required
Nanoparticles in Drug
Delivery: From History to
Therapeutic (MDPI)
([PMC](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.n
ih.gov/articles/PMC9781272/))
CNS
(brain)
Polymeric
NP
Rivastigmi
ne
— Improved
learning/memory
Nanoparticles in Drug
Delivery (MDPI)
([PMC](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.n
ih.gov/articles/PMC9781272/))
Cancer
(various)
Polymeric /
Lipid /
Metal NPs
Doxorubic
in,
Paclitaxel,
Cisplatin,
etc.
Size, PDI,
surface charge
control
Improved
solubility,
targeting,
controlled release,
less side effects
Nanoparticles as Drug
Delivery Systems: A Review
([PMC](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.n
ih.gov/articles/PMC10096782/
))
Cancer
(general)
Metallic
NPs
Gold,
Silver,
Platinum-
based
drugs
Tunable size,
surface, stability
Targeting,
circulation,
combined therapy
(photothermal)
Review on metal nanoparticles
as nanocarriers
([PMC](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.n
ih.gov/articles/PMC8724657/))
CONCLUSION38,37,36
Nanoparticles are a promising medication carrier for several drug delivery systems. Nanotechnology is a
breakthrough technology that pervades all industries; novel applications of this field are being investigated
worldwide. Nanoparticles can improve drug solubility and bioavailability, making them applicable to any
poorly soluble medicine. Drug nanoparticles can enhance a drug's solubility, dissolving rate, and surface
adhesiveness. Nanoparticulate medication delivery is gaining popularity as an effective alternative for
biological pharmaceuticals. Nanoparticles offer effective treatment through targeted and controlled release,
making them an attractive option for the biopharmaceutical industry.
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