Correlates of Executive Function and Reading Comprehension among Seventh Graders IN Itezhi-Tezhi District, Zambia

Correlates of Executive Function and Reading Comprehension among Seventh Graders IN Itezhi-Tezhi District, Zambia

Namakando Namushi, Pelekelo P. Kabundula, Sylvia Mwanza-Kabaghe (PhD).
Department of Educational Psychology, Sociology and Special Education, The University of Zambia.

Received: 20 December 2022;  Revised: 06 January 2023; Accepted: 16 March 2023; Published: 15 April 2023

ABSTRACT

The aim of the paper was to determine the association between executive function and reading comprehension among seventh graders in Itezhi-tezhi District, Zambia. The study utilized a correlational research design. Simple and stratified random sampling techniques were used to select a total of 216 respondents comprising pupils and parents. Data were collected using the following testing tools: Behavioral Rating Inventory for Executive Functions second edition (BRIEF2), Delis-Kaplan Executive function system (D.KEFS), Digit Span (DS), Reading Comprehension Assessment Tool (RCAT), Kaufman’s Pattern Reasoning Test (K-PRT), Biographic Data Form (BDF), Home Literacy Environment Questionnaire (HLEQ) and School Literacy Environment Checklist (SELC). Data were analyzed using the Stata version14 to perform correlations. The results demonstrated that there was both positive and negative statistically significant correlation (p<0.001) among the three core skills of executive function (Inhibitory control; Cognitive flexibility and Working memory on objective measures using Digit Span (DST) and Delis-Kaplan Executive function system (D.KEFS). Whereas, on the subjective measures of executive function, the three core skills exhibited statistically negative correlation at different levels (Inhibitory control, r = -0.21, p=0.03), Cognitive flexibility, r = – 0.22, p=0.02) and Working memory, (r = -0.22, p=0.02). Further, a positive and negative statistically significant correlation was also noted with Task monitor (r = 0.19, p=0.05) and Organization of material (r = -0.25, p=0.01). However, an insignificant difference was observed in Self-monitor (r = -0.06, p=0.54), Emotional control (r = -0.03, p=0.72), Initiate (r = -0.18, p=0.07), Plan and organize (r = -0.18, p=0.06) as aspects of executive function skills which indicated no statistically correlation with reading comprehension.

INTERPRETATION: Executive function skills correlated highly with reading comprehension among the seventh graders, though a home and school environment need to promote early stimulation for executive function skills and create a reading culture.

Key words: Executive Function, Working Memory, Inhibitory Control, Cognitive Flexibility and Reading Comprehension.

INTRODUCTION

Multiple studies have shown the importance of executive function among people in both developed and developing countries (Zelazo, Blair and Willoughby, 2017, Mwanza-Kabaghe, 2015, Mwanza-Kabaghe, Mubanga, Matafwali, Kasonde-Ng’andu and Bus, 2015, Bull and Lee, 2014, Barkley, 2012, Flook and Smalley, 2010, St Clair-Thompson and Gathercole, 2006). Executive functions consist of several brain-based skills that help people to organize, act on information, initiate, perform tasks and solve current problems. There is understanding and agreement amongst scholars that the core or most basic executive function skills include working memory, inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility (shift) (Diamond, 2013, Best and Miller, 2010, Friedman, Miyake, Corley, Young, DeFries, and Hewitt, 2006, Witzki and Howerter, 2000, Miyake, Friedman, Emerson, Witzki, Howerter and Wager, 2000). The implication is that these three core components of Executive function are dissociable implying that in practice, it is impossible to test one component to the complete exclusion of others. For instance, Inhibitory control involves being able to control one’s attention, behaviour, thoughts or emotions to override strong internal predispositions or external lures, and instead do what is more appropriate or needed at a given time. (Miyake et al., 2000). Without inhibitory control, one would be at the mercy of impulses, old habits of thought, action or stimuli in the environment. Working memory is necessary and responsible for making sense of written work or spoken language be it a sentence, a paragraph, passage or doing mathematics mentally, translating instructions into action, incorporating new information into thinking, considering alternatives, and mentally relating information to derive a general principle (Müller and Kerns, 2015). Children with dyslexia show deficits on working memory tasks in both verbal and visual domains (Reiter, Tucha and Lange, 2005). Cognitive flexibility helps a reader to actively shift focus between many things, such as word and text meanings, letter-sound information, and syntactic (sentence grammar). This has demonstrated that Cognitive flexibility has a direct and unique association with reading comprehension attainment. (Kieffer, Vukovic and Berry, 2013). Executive function has been widely recognised and researched in terms of underpinning successful goal-directed tasks, and is linked to educational attainment in literacy, mathematics and academic achievement. (Zelazo, Blair and Willoughby, 2017, Mwanza- Kabaghe, 2015, Bull and Scerif, 2001; McClelland et al. 2007, St. Clair-Thompson and Gathercole, 2006, Alexander, Entwisle and Dauber, 1993). However, the Southern and Eastern African Consortium for monitoring Education Quality (SACMEQ) report, (2016) and some Zambian studies done in the area of reading (Mulenga, 2017, Tambulukani, 2015, Chansa- Kabali, 2014, Mutale, 2013, Matafwali, 2010; Mwambazi, 2011, Nkosha, 2011; Chazangwe, 2011, Mbewe, et. al 2016) have shown low reading levels among Zambian learners especially at primary school level. We therefore, sought to correlate executive function skills and reading comprehension among the seventh graders in Itezhi-tezhi District, Zambia based on the overwhelming evidence that executive function is a boost and predict reading and writing skills (Blair, Zelazo, and Greenberg, 2005; Mwanza-Kabaghe, 2015; Zelazo et.al, 2017).

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Participants: Eligible participants were seventh graders who were recruited from public primary schools in Itezhi-tezhi district.

Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria: Only grade seven pupils and their parents/caregivers were included in the present analysis.

Procedures: Participants completed selected tasks from Delis-Kaplan Executive function system (D.KEFS), Behavioral Rating Inventory for Executive Functions (BRIEF2) and Digit Span (DS) to assess executive function skills, Reading Comprehension was measured using Reading Comprehension Assessment Tool (RCAT), while background variables were measured as follows, general intelligence: Kaufman’s Pattern Reasoning Test (K-PRT), Home literacy: Home Literacy environment questionnaire: Social economic status: Biographic data form and School literacy environment: School Literacy Environment Checklist. Supervision was provided by the researcher’s supervisor who was based in Lusaka via telephone and physical site visits. The assessments were conducted by the researcher himself for a period of three months.

Sample Size: For this study, a total sample size of 216 respondents (n=108 Pupils; n=108 Parents) were recruited from six public primary schools in Itezhi-tezhi district.

Statistical Methods: Statistical analyses were performed using Stata 14 to perform (Pearson’s r) for continuous variables and (Spearman’s ρ) for categorical variables as appropriate.

Ethics Statement: This study was approved by the University of Zambia Humanities and social Sciences Research Ethics Committee (UNZAHSSREC). Informed consent and parental permission were obtained in accordance with UNZAHSSREC requirements.

RESULTS

Sample characteristics: A total of 216 respondents (Children: n=108; Parents/caregivers: n=108) were enrolled, completed and analyzed in the study. Respondents’ age, sex, social economic status, Home literacy, School literacy environment, a neighborhood of residence, primary language, and grade level has been indicated. (Table 1). In order to establish the relationship between executive function and reading comprehension among seventh graders, the correlation was performed on both objective and subjective measures of executive function and reading comprehension.

Correlation of objective measures of executive function skills and reading comprehension

When the core executive function skills were correlated with reading comprehension, the study indicates that there is a statistically significant correlation between the core executive function skills and reading comprehension (p<0.001) (Table 2). This implies that children in the study who had good executive function skills equally performed significantly well on reading comprehension.

Correlation of subjective measures of executive function skills and reading comprehension

On the subjective measures of executive function, the results also demonstrated a statistically significant correlation at various levels between reading comprehension and the core skill of executive function skills (Table 3). For instance, Inhibitory control and reading comprehension correlated at (r= -0.21, p=0.03), Shift (r= -0.22, p=0.02), Working memory (r= -0.22, p=0.02), (Task monitor (r= -0.19, p=0.05) and Organization of materials (r= -0.25, p=0.01). However, a difference was noted with Self-monitor (r= -0.06, p=0.54), Emotional control (r= -0.03, p=0.72), Initiate (r= -0.18, p=0.07), Plan and organize (r=-0.18, p=0.06) which indicated no statistically significant relationship with reading comprehension.

DISCUSSION

To establish the relationship between executive function and reading comprehension among seventh graders, a correlation was performed on both objective and subjective measures of executive function skills. The results on objective measures of executive function skills indicate that there is a statistically significant relationship between reading comprehension and core executive function skills (p<0.001). This finding demonstrated a link between working memory, cognitive flexibility inhibitory control and reading comprehension. This is consistent with a growing body of literature demonstrating tight links between executive functioning and reading comprehension (Mwanza-Kabaghe, 2015; Kamza, 2017; Best, 2010; Esopo, 2018; Jager and Condy, 2017; Osuji, 2017; Spaull and Pretorius, 2014, Veii, 2003) which investigated intensively the relationship between executive function and reading abilities among learners and reported a significant relationship between executive function reading abilities. EF and reading comprehension hold a strong relationship and have little to do with rote memorizing or learning facts. EF has more to do with reasoning, problem solving and using the knowledge acquired from rote memory to make inferences and solve problems (Adams, Mwanza-Kabaghe, Mbewe, Kabundula, and David, 2019). Reading comprehension is a highly demanding task that requires coordination of various EF domains. This entails that the core executive skills (working memory, inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility) were all important in influencing reading comprehension and therefore, the relevant authorities in the ministry of general education must desire to tailor the education activities in line with the demand of the three core skills of executive function. Similarly, the finding of the study on the correlation between an objective measure of Executive function and reading comprehension is supported by Baddeley (1996)’s multi-component model (theory) which assets that different executive function domains such as working memory, inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility contribute differently and simultaneously during cognitive processing. A capacity limitation or processing inefficiency in one or more of these executive function domains contributes to variability in reading performance. The theory also indicates that the phonological loop (PL) and visuospatial sketchpad (VSSP) are distinct brain regions involved during reading comprehension. The relationship between the three core executive function skill and reading comprehension as demonstrated by the findings of this study clearly prove the theoretical claims of Baddeley’s theory. This entails that Baddeley’s multi component (model) theory is useful and should be utilized by scholars because it has demonstrated a link between executive function and reading comprehension among seventh graders in school. This entails that executive function is an important component as it helps not only in influencing reading comprehension but also other goal directed tasks, therefore, this study is a step in the right direction as it has provided insightful information on reading which can be used in schools for decision making on the relationship between executive function and comprehension among the seventh graders. As school authorities endeavor to improve reading levels, special attention should be given to EF stimulation at an early age because it has been established that there is a correlation between EF and reading comprehension. Policy makers should eradicate poor reading levels using a holistic approach those targets both stimulations of executive function domains and improvement of other external factors known to be threats to reading abilities. This could be one clear solution needed in Zambia where reading levels are extremely poor.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, establishing the relationship between EF skills and reading comprehension among seventh graders was another component that was very cardinal in this study. Therefore, to establish the relationship between EF and reading comprehension among seventh graders, the correlation was executed on both objective and subjective measures of executive function. Objective measures of executive function skills indicated a statistically significant relationship between reading comprehension and the three core executive function skills (p< 0.001). This entails that EF is an important component as it helps not only in predicting reading comprehension but also in other goal directed tasks, therefore, this study is a step in the right direction as it has provided insightful information to be used in schools for decision making on the relationship between executive function and reading comprehension among the seventh graders. When subjective measures of EF were correlated with reading comprehension, the study found a statistically significant relationship at various levels between reading comprehension and the three core executive function skills. For instance, inhibitory control (r = -0.21, p=0.03), Cognitive Flexibility (r = -0.22, p=0.02), Working memory (r = -0.22, p=0.02), Task monitor (r = -0.19, p=0.05) and Organisation of materials (r = -0.25, p=0.01). However, a difference was noted with Self-monitor (r = -0.06, p=0.54), Emotional control (r = -0.03, p=0.72), Initiate (r = -0.18, p=0.07), Plan and organise (r = -0.18, p=0.06) which indicated no statistically significant relationship with reading comprehension.

Table 1: Sample Characteristics

Table 2: Correction of Objective measures of executive function skills and reading Comprehension

Table 3: Correction of Subjective of executive function skills and reading comprehension

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About authors: Namakando Namushi and Pelekelo P. Kabundula are both PhD students at the University of Zambia, Department of Educational Psychology, Sociology and Special Education. Dr. Sylvia Mwanza-Kabaghe (PhD) is a Senior Lecturer at the University of Zambia, Department of Educational Psychology, Sociology and Special Education.