Review of The Role of Unmanned Surface Vehicles (USVs) in Enhancing Offshore Oil and Gas Exploration: Opportunities and Challenges in Nigerian Waters”

Review of The Role of Unmanned Surface Vehicles (USVs) in Enhancing Offshore Oil and Gas Exploration: Opportunities and Challenges in Nigerian Waters”

Adeniji Kolawole, Osayi Philip Igbinenikaro

Pisces Offshore Limited, Nigeria

DOI: https://doi.org/10.51584/IJRIAS.2024.910017

Received: 07 October 2024; Accepted: 12 October 2024; Published: 08 November 2024

ABSTRACT

This review explores the role of Unmanned Surface Vehicles (USVs) in oil and gas exploration within Nigerian waters, a region critical to the industry yet characterized by environmental and operational challenges. USVs are revolutionizing marine operations by enabling safe and efficient data acquisition in hazardous environments. This study examines the technological advancements that enhance USV capabilities, the environmental benefits of their deployment, and the regulatory landscape affecting their use in Nigeria. By highlighting both the opportunities and challenges associated with USV integration in offshore exploration, this review aims to provide insights for industry stakeholders and policymakers. Recommendations for fostering collaboration, investing in technology, and developing supportive regulations are discussed, emphasizing the potential of USVs to transform oil and gas exploration practices in Nigeria while promoting sustainable marine operations.

Keywords: USV, Technology, Oil and Gas, Marine Operation, Oil Exploration, Data Acquisition

INTRODUCTION

Unmanned Surface Vehicles (USVs) are autonomous or remotely controlled vessels that operate on the water’s surface without the need for onboard crew, utilized for a range of maritime applications including oceanographic data collection, defence, environmental monitoring, and shipping (Campbell et al., 2023). The concept of unmanned vessels dates back to the 19th century, beginning with remotely operated torpedoes, and during World War II, the U.S. Navy developed radio-controlled “drone boats” for mine clearance and target practice, although technological limitations restricted their broader deployments (Olajiga, et. al., 2024, Omole, Olajiga & Olatunde, 2024). In the 1960s, military and research institutions explored more advanced remote-operated marine systems, leading to early prototypes of USVs primarily focused on military uses (Biu, et. al., 2024, Dada, et. al., 2024). The modern era of USVs emerged in the 1990s and early 2000s, driven by advances in computer technology, communication, and GPS navigation, as researchers began developing these vessels for civilian purposes such as environmental monitoring and oil spill response (Alahira, et. al., 2024, Dada, et. al., 2024). Since then, USVs have evolved significantly in design, size, and capabilities, featuring advanced sensors, communication systems, and artificial intelligence (AI) for complex tasks, and are categorized into small vessels for coastal applications, medium-sized vehicles for offshore operations, and large vessels for oceanic missions (Etukudoh, et. al., 2024, Lewicka, et. al., 2022)

APPLICATIONS OF USV TECHNOLOGY

Unmanned Surface Vehicles (USVs) have diverse applications across various sectors, including defence and security, where they are employed for surveillance, reconnaissance, mine detection, and harbour security in high-risk areas (Bravo, et. al., 2023, Gourvenec, et. al., 2022). In the oil and gas industry, USVs facilitate underwater inspections, pipeline monitoring, and marine surveys, offering reduced operational costs and minimizing human risks due to their autonomous capabilities in deepwater environments (Alahira, et. al., 2024, Ohalete, et. al., 2023). They are also essential for environmental monitoring and oceanographic research, collecting real-time data on water quality, tracking pollution, and observing climate change effects while operating with minimal disturbance to sensitive ecosystems (Adekanmbi, et. al., 2024, Uwaoma, et. al., 2024). In scientific research, USVs enable ocean mapping, biodiversity studies, and habitat monitoring by providing continuous, high-quality data in remote areas (Olajiga, et. al., 2024, Omole, Olajiga & Olatunde, 2024). Furthermore, USVs are being explored for commercial shipping applications, potentially transporting goods over short distances or supporting larger vessels (Adeleke, et. al., 2024, Ebirim, et. al., 2024). They play a critical role in search and rescue missions, especially during natural disasters, by rapidly deploying to affected areas and relaying vital information to rescue teams (Etukudoh, et. al., 2024, Lewicka, et. al., 2022). The future of USV technology looks promising, with advancements in AI, sensor technology, and renewable energy driving their evolution (Adekanmbi, et. al., 2024, Umoh, et. al., 2024). As these autonomous systems become more sophisticated, USVs will undertake increasingly complex missions with minimal human oversight, and their integration with Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) and Unmanned Underwater Vehicles (UUVs) will enhance multi-domain operations (Abatan, et. al., 2024, Ebirim, et. al., 2024). As regulations for autonomous vessels develop, the use of USVs in commercial applications is expected to expand, fostering innovation in global maritime operations.

Importance of Marine Surveys in Oil and Gas Exploration

Marine surveys play a crucial role in oil and gas exploration, especially in offshore regions rich in resources, by providing essential data on the geological and environmental conditions of the seabed and subsurface that guide the exploration and drilling processes (Biu, et. al., 2024, Dada, et. al., 2024). Key types of marine surveys include seismic surveys, which utilize sound waves to map subsurface geology and identify potential reservoirs; bathymetric surveys, which measure the ocean floor’s depth and topography to aid in platform placement; and environmental impact assessments, which evaluate the effects of oil and gas activities on marine ecosystems to ensure compliance with regulatory standards (Abatan, et. al., 2024, Ebirim, et. al., 2024). Additionally, regular inspections of pipelines and infrastructure are conducted during drilling to monitor for potential hazards or damage. Without accurate and comprehensive marine surveys, oil and gas companies risk misinterpreting subsurface conditions, leading to costly mistakes such as drilling dry wells, causing environmental damage, or experiencing accidents (Adeleke, et. al., 2024, Dada, et. al., 2024).

Role of USVs in Marine Surveys for Oil and Gas

Unmanned Surface Vehicles (USVs) have become essential for marine surveys in the oil and gas industry due to their versatility, efficiency, and capability to operate in hazardous environments (Umoh, et. al., 2024, Uwaoma, et. al., 2024). Equipped with advanced sensors, communication systems, and autonomous navigation technology, USVs excel at gathering data in challenging offshore conditions, offering cost-efficiency by reducing reliance on expensive manned vessels and cutting down on crew costs and logistical needs (Ohalete, et. al., 2023, Sonko, et. al., 2024). They enhance safety by performing tasks in remote or dangerous locations without risking human lives (Abatan, et. al., 2024, Ebirim, et. al., 2024). Their ability to autonomously follow pre-programmed routes and utilize high-precision GPS and sonar systems allows for accurate data collection and real-time results, operating continuously (Constantinoiu, et. al., 2024, Tsai & Lin, 2022). Typically, smaller and more fuel-efficient than traditional vessels, USVs help reduce the carbon footprint, which is crucial as the industry faces pressure to minimize environmental impacts (Bravo, et. al., 2023, Gourvenec, et. al.. 2022). Their flexibility enables a range of applications, including seismic surveys, bathymetric studies, and environmental monitoring, while also facilitating the ongoing inspection of underwater infrastructure to detect leaks or corrosion early, minimizing costly repairs or environmental spills (Adekanmbi, et. al., 2024, Uwaoma, et. al., 2024). Moreover, USVs can carry multiple types of sensors simultaneously, enhancing data collection efficiency and reducing time spent at sea (Campbell et al., 2023). As technology advances, USVs are expected to play an even greater role in oil and gas exploration, with innovations in AI and sensor technology enabling them to operate more autonomously and gather more detailed data, potentially integrating with other autonomous systems like UAVs and ROVs for comprehensive, multi-layered survey solutions (Atadoga, et. al., 2024, Nwokediegwu, et. al., 2024).

SIGNIFICANCE OF OIL AND GAS EXPLORATION IN NIGERIAN WATERS

Oil and gas exploration is critically significant in Nigeria, which stands as one of Africa’s largest oil producers, with its economy heavily reliant on this sector, especially in the Niger Delta and offshore drilling in the Gulf of Guinea (Ibekwe, et. al., 2024, She, et. al., 2023). Oil and gas constitute over 90% of Nigeria’s export revenue and approximately 60% of government income, making these resources vital for national development (Aderibigbe, et. al., 2023, Sonko, et. al., 2024). The Niger Delta is rich in onshore and offshore oil and gas fields, hosting numerous oil fields, pipelines, and terminals, while offshore drilling, particularly in deepwater areas like the Bonga and Egina fields, has led to substantial discoveries that bolster the country’s oil production and global supply (Omole, Olajiga & Olatunde, 2024, Usman, et. al., 2024). Despite its economic importance, exploration faces significant environmental challenges, including oil spills, gas flaring, and ecosystem disruption, which have resulted in community tensions due to inadequate benefits from oil wealth alongside environmental degradation (Etukudoh, et. al., 2024, Lewicka, et. al., 2022). Logistically, the Niger Delta presents infrastructure difficulties due to its complex waterways, alongside security issues such as sabotage and theft of oil infrastructure (Abatan, et. al., 2024, Ebirim, et. al., 2024). The regulatory environment remains challenging, with companies navigating complex laws and high operational costs associated with offshore drilling (Sodiya, et. al., 2024, Uwaoma, et. al., 2024). In this context, Unmanned Surface Vehicles (USVs) are emerging as valuable assets, offering cost-effective marine surveys, conducting environmental monitoring to ensure compliance, and enhancing safety by operating in hazardous areas without risking human lives, thus addressing some of the critical challenges in Nigeria’s oil and gas exploration (Olajiga, et. al., 2024, Sonko, et. al., 2024).

OVERVIEW OF USV TECHNOLOGY

Unmanned Surface Vehicles (USVs) are vessels that operate on water surfaces without a human crew onboard, either through remote control or full autonomy depending on their navigation systems and mission requirements (Bravo, et. al., 2023, Gourvenec, et. al.. 2022). Increasingly popular in fields such as defence, oil and gas, environmental monitoring, and marine research, USVs are valued for their versatility and efficiency (Hafiza, et. al., 2024, Sodiya, et. al., 2024, Xiao, 2024). Key components of USV technology include varied hull designs to suit specific missions, propulsion systems ranging from internal combustion engines to renewable energy sources, and advanced navigation and control systems utilizing AI and machine learning for autonomous operation (Bravo, et. al., 2023, Gourvenec, et. al.. 2022). Sensor suites equipped with GPS, LiDAR, sonar, and environmental sensors enable precise navigation and data collection, while robust communication systems like SATCOM and RF ensure effective data transmission (Al-Hamad, et. al., 2023, Hamdan, et. al., 2024). Efficient power management systems, including battery and hybrid solutions, support extended operations, and payload integration allows USVs to carry equipment for scientific, military, and commercial purposes (Dada, et. al., 2024, Usman, et. al., 2024). Mission planning and data processing software enhance the operational capabilities of USVs, facilitating real-time decision-making and efficient mission execution (Roberts & Sutton, 2023).

Figure 1: Fundamental architecture of a typical USV.

Types of Unmanned Surface Vehicles (USVs) Used in Exploration.

Unmanned Surface Vehicles (USVs) come in various types, each designed for specific tasks based on mission requirements, and can be broadly categorized into remotely operated and autonomous USVs, with some hybrid models offering both functionalities (Pryor & Barthelmie, 2024, Uwaoma, et. al., 2024). Remotely operated USVs are controlled by human operators from a distance, using communication links like radio frequency or satellite to guide their movements, making them ideal for precision tasks such as underwater pipeline inspections and seismic surveys (Roberts & Sutton, 2023). Autonomous USVs, equipped with advanced algorithms and sensors, operate independently, adjusting to environmental conditions in real-time, and are suited for long-duration missions like oceanographic research and offshore seismic surveys (Chemisky, et. al., 2021, Mandlburger, 2022). Hybrid USVs combine both remote and autonomous capabilities, providing flexibility in complex environments where human oversight is occasionally necessary (Ani, et. al., 2024, Obiuto, et. al., 2024). Specialized USVs are tailored for specific tasks, such as bathymetric surveys, seismic mapping, and environmental monitoring, and are equipped with specialized sensors and configurations to meet the demands of these missions (Al-Hamad, et. al., 2023, Etukudoh, 2024). Examples of these specialized USVs include the Teledyne Z-Boat 1800 for bathymetric surveys, the Kongsberg GeoSwath 4 for seismic surveys, and the Liquid Robotics Wave Glider for environmental monitoring (Olu-lawal, et. al., 2024, Umoga, et. al., 2024).

Technical Capabilities of USVs in Oil and Gas Surveys

Unmanned Surface Vehicles (USVs) used in oil and gas surveys are equipped with advanced technologies, including a variety of sensors, navigation systems, and communication technologies, to operate efficiently in challenging environments, enabling accurate surveys and offshore operations monitoring (Etukudoh, et. al., 2024, Igbinenikaro, et. al., 2024). These USVs perform tasks such as seabed mapping, pipeline inspection, environmental monitoring, and subsea infrastructure maintenance (Afolabi, et. al., 2023, Majemite, et. al., 2024). They utilize sonar systems for seabed mapping and detecting subsea structures, side-scan sonar for detailed seabed imaging, sub-bottom profilers for geological layer investigation, and Acoustic Doppler Current Profilers (ADCP) for measuring water current velocities (Saylam, et. al., 2023, Thomas, et. al., 2022). Environmental sensors monitor oceanographic conditions and water quality, while cameras and visual sensors provide real-time inspection capabilities (Ogedengbe, et. al., 2023, Olu-lawal, et. al., 2024). Navigation systems such as GPS, Inertial Navigation Systems (INS), and LiDAR ensure precise positioning and safe operations, with obstacle avoidance systems enhancing autonomous operation safety (Roberts & Sutton, 2023). Communication technologies, including satellite communication (SATCOM), radio frequency (RF) communication, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and acoustic communication, enable remote control, data transmission, and real-time monitoring of USVs, making them essential for deep-sea exploration, pipeline inspections, and environmental monitoring in the oil and gas industry (Atadoga, et. al., 2024, Nwokediegwu, et. al., 2024).

Integration of USVs with Geophysical Survey Systems

Unmanned Surface Vehicles (USVs) are increasingly utilized in geophysical surveys within the oil and gas industry, integrating with systems such as sonar and seismic technology to enhance data collection, efficiency, and safety (Saylam, et. al., 2023, Thomas, et. al., 2022). These USVs employ multi-beam and side-scan sonar for seabed mapping and hazard identification, with real-time monitoring and data synchronization through precise GPS positioning (Etukudoh, et. al., 2024, Igbinenikaro, et. al., 2024). Seismic sensors deployed via USVs enable subsurface mapping crucial for locating oil and gas reservoirs, with data processed onboard and transmitted to control centres for immediate analysis (Bae & Hong, 2023, Nezhad, et. al., 2024). Sub-bottom profilers integrated into USVs provide information on subsurface geological layers, aiding in the assessment of sediment layers and hydrocarbon deposits (Alahira, et. al., 2024, Dada, et. al., 2024). Environmental sensors monitor water quality, temperature, salinity, and pollution levels, allowing USVs to autonomously adjust survey paths based on environmental data (Omole, Olajiga & Olatunde, 2024, Usman, et. al., 2024). Advanced navigation systems, including GPS and inertial navigation systems, ensure precise positioning and route planning, while obstacle avoidance systems enhance safety (Obiuto, et. al., 2024, Vecchi, 2023). Effective communication technologies, including satellite, RF, and acoustic communication, enable real-time data transmission and remote monitoring, facilitating collaborative operations between USVs and other survey vessels.

Application of USVs in Oil and Gas Exploration

Unmanned Surface Vehicles (USVs) have become indispensable in oil and gas exploration, leveraging diverse survey techniques to enhance data collection, operational efficiency, and safety (Janowski, et. al., 2022, Li, et. al., 2023). They are employed in seismic surveys, where USVs with towed seismic streamers map subsurface geological formations to locate oil and gas reserves, offering benefits such as reduced costs and increased safety, especially in challenging conditions (Umoh, et. al., 2024, Uwaoma, et. al., 2024). In hydrographic mapping, USVs use multi-beam and side-scan sonar to create high-resolution maps of underwater terrain, essential for pipeline routing and infrastructure planning, operating efficiently in shallow and hazardous waters while minimizing environmental disruption (Ohalete, et. al., 2023, Sonko, et. al., 2024). Additionally, USVs are vital for environmental monitoring, equipped with sensors to measure water quality, temperature, and pollutant levels, providing real-time data that supports regulatory compliance and early detection of ecological threats (Sodiya, et. al., 2024, Uwaoma, et. al., 2024). Global case studies, particularly in Nigerian waters, highlight the practical applications and advantages of these survey techniques using USVs.

Case Studies of USV Use in Offshore Oil and Gas

Global examples demonstrate the effectiveness of USVs in the oil and gas sector, such as Saildrone missions in the North Sea off Norway, where USVs collected data on currents, temperature, and chlorophyll levels to inform decision-making regarding drilling operations and environmental impacts (Abatan, et. al., 2024, Etukudoh, et. al., 2024). Similarly, in the Gulf of Mexico, Ocean Infinity utilized a fleet of USVs and Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs) for detailed seabed mapping and pipeline inspections (Alahira, et. al., 2024, Olajiga, et. al., 2024). The integration of USVs towing sonar systems with AUVs for deeper inspections provided comprehensive insights into underwater infrastructure, enhancing safety and efficiency while minimizing reliance on manned vessels.

Case Studies of USV Use in Offshore Oil and Gas in Nigeria

On March 1, 2024, The Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria Ltd (SPDC) achieved a significant milestone by becoming the first company to deploy an Uncrewed Surface Vessel (USV) for a pipeline route survey in the Niger Delta (Keedwell, 2024). This groundbreaking approach heralds a new era in surveying, marked by substantial improvements in time and cost efficiency, alongside significant reductions in personnel and environmental exposure.

The deployment of the USV was a meticulously planned operation aimed at surveying a pipeline route at Bonny in the Niger Delta (Keedwell, 2024). The USV, a state-of-the-art piece of technology, operated remotely, ensuring that no personnel were directly exposed to the potentially hazardous conditions of the survey environment. Over the course of a 166-hour mission, the USV conducted a comprehensive survey, setting a new record for the longest single mission of its kind within the Shell Group.

The use of the USV brought about a paradigm shift in survey operations. Traditionally, such surveys would require a substantial number of personnel and equipment, often resulting in higher costs and longer durations. Additionally, the environmental impact and risk to human life were considerable factors that needed careful management (Adeoye, et. al., 2024, Nwokediegwu, et. al., 2024). The advent of the USV addressed these challenges head-on. Its remote operation meant that the need for on-site personnel was eliminated, thus reducing the risk of accidents and exposure to hazardous conditions (Alahira, et. al., 2024, Olajiga, et. al., 2024). Moreover, the USV’s diesel-electric design contributed to a remarkable 97% reduction in CO2 emissions, aligning with global efforts to mitigate climate change and promoting sustainable operational practices (Keedwell, 2024).

The efficiency gains realized through the deployment of the USV were multifaceted. The vehicle’s advanced technology enabled it to gather data with unparalleled precision and speed (Abatan, et. al., 2024, Etukudoh, et. al., 2024). This efficiency was not merely a matter of faster data collection but also improved the quality of the data acquired. High-quality data is crucial for accurate analysis and decision-making, and the USV’s capabilities ensured that the information gathered was both comprehensive and reliable (Keedwell, 2024).

In terms of productivity, the USV’s performance was exemplary. The extended duration of the mission did not hinder its ability to operate at optimal levels. Instead, it demonstrated resilience and consistency, attributes that are essential for prolonged survey operations (Aderibigbe, et. al., 2023, Ebirim, et. al., 2024). The success of this mission underscored the potential for USVs to revolutionize the way surveys are conducted in the oil and gas industry, particularly in challenging and remote environments like the Niger Delta (Keedwell, 2024).

The significance of SPDC’s deployment of the USV extends beyond the immediate benefits of cost savings and efficiency (Keedwell, 2024). It represents a forward-thinking approach to operational challenges, leveraging technology to enhance safety, sustainability, and productivity. This innovative step is a testament to SPDC’s commitment to adopting cutting-edge solutions that not only improve operational outcomes but also align with broader environmental and safety goals.

The deployment of the USV is a clear indicator of the future direction of survey operations in Nigeria and beyond. As the industry continues to evolve, the integration of advanced technologies like USVs will become increasingly prevalent (Nwokediegwu, et. al., 2024, Ugwuanyi, et. al., 2024). These innovations promise to set new standards for efficiency, safety, and environmental stewardship, driving the industry towards more sustainable and effective practices.

The successful deployment of the Uncrewed Surface Vessel (USV) by The Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria Ltd (SPDC) for a pipeline route survey in the Niger Delta on March 1, 2024, was not a solitary achievement. It was the culmination of a strategic partnership involving multiple stakeholders dedicated to advancing Nigeria’s oil and gas industry. This collaborative effort included the Nigerian Upstream Petroleum Regulatory Commission (NUPRC), NNPC Upstream Investment Management Services, Nigerian Content Development and Management Board (NCDMB), Nigerian Navy Hydrographic Office (NNHO), and the Nigerian Maritime Administration and Safety Agency (NIMASA). Each entity played a crucial role in ensuring the project’s success, reflecting a comprehensive and unified approach to innovation and capacity building within Nigeria (Keedwell, 2024).

SPDC’s partnership with NUPRC was pivotal in navigating the regulatory landscape. As the agency responsible for regulating upstream petroleum operations, NUPRC’s involvement ensured that the USV deployment met all regulatory requirements, facilitating a smooth and compliant operation (Ibekwe, et. al., 2024, Obiuto, et. al., 2024). This collaboration underscores the importance of regulatory bodies in fostering innovation while maintaining industry standards and safety.

Similarly, the involvement of NNPC Upstream Investment Management Services, a key player in managing upstream investments for the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC), was critical. Their expertise and support helped align the project with national investment goals, ensuring that the benefits of the USV deployment extended beyond Immediate operational gains to contribute to Nigeria’s broader economic objectives (Ayorinde, et. al., 2024, Ohalete, et. al., 2024).

The NCDMB’s role was instrumental in emphasizing local content development. By supporting initiatives that enhance Nigerian participation in the oil and gas sector, the NCDMB helped ensure that the USV project not only leveraged advanced technology but also prioritized the development of local expertise (Al-Hamad, et. al., 2023, Etukudoh, 2024). This aligns with Nigeria’s strategic focus on building local capacity and reducing dependence on foreign expertise.

The Nigerian Navy Hydrographic Office (NNHO) and NIMASA brought essential maritime and safety oversight to the project. NNHO’s hydrographic expertise ensured that the survey was conducted with high precision, while NIMASA’s focus on maritime safety and administration helped mitigate risks associated with the operation (Sodiya, et. al., 2024, Ugwuanyi, et. al., 2024). Their combined input was crucial in maintaining the highest standards of safety and accuracy throughout the mission.

A cornerstone of the project was SPDC’s collaboration with Compass Survey Limited, a Nigerian vendor supported by Unmanned Survey Solutions (USS) from the UK. This partnership was not just about leveraging advanced technology but also about fostering local capacity (Keedwell, 2024). Compass Survey Limited played a crucial role in executing the survey, demonstrating the capabilities of Nigerian firms in handling complex technological operations.

A significant aspect of this collaboration was the emphasis on training and capacity building. SPDC and its partners undertook comprehensive training programs for on-site remote operators. This initiative aimed to develop Nigerian expertise in operating and managing advanced USV technology (Afolabi, et. al., 2023, Majemite, et. al., 2024). By training local operators, SPDC ensured that the knowledge and skills required to operate USVs were embedded within Nigeria, contributing to sustainable development in the sector.

The training programs were designed to cover various aspects of USV operation, including technical skills, safety protocols, and data management (Onoufriou, 2020, Uwaoma, et. al., 2024). This holistic approach ensured that the operators were not only proficient in handling the USV but also understood the broader context of their work, including the importance of safety and environmental considerations (Ilojianya, et. al., 2024, Obaigbena, et. al., 2024). The involvement of Unmanned Survey Solutions from the UK provided an additional layer of expertise, ensuring that the training was of the highest standard.

The emphasis on local capacity building had immediate and long-term benefits. In the short term, it enabled the successful completion of the 166-hour survey mission at Bonny with high efficiency and accuracy (Ibeh, et. al., 2024, Obaigbena, et. al., 2024). In the long term, it established a foundation for future technological advancements in Nigeria’s oil and gas sector (Etukudoh, et. al., 2024, Igbinenikaro, et. al., 2024). By developing local expertise, SPDC and its partners ensured that Nigeria is better positioned to independently undertake similar projects in the future, reducing reliance on foreign technology and expertise.

Pictorial Representation of Accession USV during the operation at Bonny, Niger Delta Nigeria.

Figure 2: Pictorial Representation of Accession USV in Nigeria.

Advantages of USVs Over Traditional Methods in Oil and Gas Exploration

Unmanned Surface Vehicles (USVs) provide significant advantages in oil and gas exploration over traditional manned vessels, particularly in terms of cost, safety, and efficiency (Janowski, et. al., 2022, Li, et. al., 2023). Cost savings are achieved through reduced operational expenses, as USVs require fewer crew members, leading to savings on salaries, training, and onboard living expenses (Omole, Olajiga & Olatunde, 2024, Usman, et. al., 2024). Their energy-efficient designs, often utilizing renewable sources like solar or wind, lower fuel costs, and their simpler design and smaller size reduce equipment and maintenance costs (Francis & Traykovski, 2021, Newman, et. al., 2023). Enhanced safety is another major benefit, as USVs minimize risks to human life by operating in hazardous environments without personnel onboard, allowing for continued exploration and monitoring in risky areas while ensuring remote control and monitoring (Etukudoh, et. al., 2024, Igbinenikaro, et. al., 2024). Increased efficiency is also notable, with USVs capable of operating continuously without fatigue, enabling longer missions and more extensive data collection. Their rapid deployment and recovery allow for quick response to changing operational needs, and their automated data collection ensures consistent and high-quality data outputs, reducing human error (Eboigbe, et. al., 2023, Hamdan, et. al., 2024). Additionally, their versatility in adapting to various tasks, such as hydrographic mapping and environmental monitoring, makes them invaluable tools in exploration and infrastructure maintenance.

CHALLENGES IN USING USVS IN NIGERIAN WATERS

Deploying Unmanned Surface Vehicles (USVs) in Nigerian waters presents significant challenges related to environmental conditions, regulatory frameworks, and technological infrastructure (Ogedengbe, et. al., 2023, Olu-lawal, et. al., 2024). Severe weather conditions like tropical storms, heavy rainfall, and strong currents in the Niger Delta can disrupt USV operations and affect data accuracy (Etukudoh, et. al., 2024, Igbinenikaro, et. al., 2024). The region’s shallow waters and complex terrain complicate navigation and sensor deployment, while high sedimentation and pollution levels can impair sensor performance (Pryor & Barthelmie, 2024, Uwaoma, et. al., 2024). Additionally, piracy threats pose security risks, potentially limiting operational ranges (Aderibigbe, et. al., 2023, Etukudoh, et. al., 2024). Regulatory and legal challenges include the lack of specific regulations for USVs, uncertainties in existing maritime laws, and the need to comply with environmental protection standards (Ayorinde, et. al., 2024, Ohalete, et. al., 2024). There is a pressing need for the Nigerian government to develop regulations addressing USV operations, including licensing, safety protocols, and environmental considerations. Technological limitations such as limited local expertise and inadequate support infrastructure, including harbour and maintenance facilities, further hinder effective USV deployment (Adeleke, et. al., 2024, Ebirim, et. al., 2024). Insufficient investment in autonomous technologies and the need for partnerships with international firms to overcome these challenges and enhance capacity building are also critical factors.

OPPORTUNITIES AND FUTURE TRENDS

Technological advances in Unmanned Surface Vehicles (USVs) are transforming their capabilities through the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning, which optimize navigation, data processing, and real-time decision-making (Janowski, et. al., 2022, Li, et. al., 2023). Enhanced sensor technologies, including multi-beam sonar and remote sensing, improve data quality and reduce survey times, while USVs can also collaborate with other autonomous systems, such as underwater drones, for more comprehensive survey operations (Constantinoiu, et. al., 2024, Tsai & Lin, 2022). Additionally, public-private partnerships have successfully leveraged USV technology for oil and gas exploration, showcasing collaboration between local firms and international tech providers (Etukudoh, et. al., 2024, Igbinenikaro, et. al., 2024). Supportive governmental policies can foster investment in USV infrastructure in Nigeria, and increased funding for research and development can further tailor USV capabilities to the unique challenges of the Nigerian marine environment (Afolabi, et. al., 2023, Majemite, et. al., 2024). Environmentally, USVs minimize disturbances to marine ecosystems compared to traditional survey methods, enhancing sustainability, while their deployment increases safety for personnel by conducting surveys in hazardous conditions. Furthermore, USVs facilitate real-time environmental monitoring, enabling swift responses to potential hazards or spills.

CONCLUSION

The use of Unmanned Surface Vehicles (USVs) in oil and gas exploration offers numerous benefits, including enhanced operational efficiency, cost savings, and improved safety by minimizing human risk. USVs’ advanced sensor, navigation, and communication technologies allow for accurate data collection in challenging offshore environments, contributing to more sustainable and effective exploration practices (Alahira, et. al., 2024, Olajiga, et. al., 2024). While USVs show significant potential in Nigerian waters, addressing challenges such as regulatory gaps, environmental concerns, and infrastructural limitations is essential to fully harness their capabilities and ensure long-term benefits for the industry.

To enhance the adoption and effectiveness of USVs in Nigerian oil and gas exploration, clear regulatory frameworks are needed to ensure safety and environmental protection, along with government incentives to promote investments in USV technology and research. Investment in research and development should focus on creating USV solutions tailored to Nigeria’s specific marine challenges, while collaboration between academic institutions, industry, and technology developers can further advance USV capabilities (Ibekwe, et. al., 2024, Nwokediegwu, et. al., 2024). Strategic partnerships between local and international firms will help leverage expertise, and the sharing of best practices and data can improve operational standards and safety protocols. These measures will facilitate sustainable growth in the use of USVs in Nigerian waters.

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8. Adeleke, A. K., Montero, D. J. P., Ani, E. C., Olu-lawal, K. A., & Olajiga, O. K. (2024). Advances in ultraprecision diamond turning: techniques, applications, and future trends. Engineering Science & Technology Journal, 5(3), 740-749.
9. Adeleke, A. K., Montero, D. J. P., Lottu, O. A., Ninduwezuor-Ehiobu, N., & Ani, E. C. (2024). 3D printing in aerospace and defense: A review of technological breakthroughs and applications.
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11. Adeleke, A. K., Olu-lawal, K. A., Montero, D. J. P., Olajiga, O. K., & Ani, E. C. (2024). The intersection of mechatronics and precision engineering: Synergies and future directions. International Journal of Science and Research Archive, 11(1), 2356-2364.
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13. Aderibigbe, A. O., Ani, E. C., Ohenhen, P. E., Ohalete, N. C., Igbinenikaro O. P., & Daraojimba, D. O. (2023). Enhancing energy efficiency with ai: a review of machine learning models in electricity demand forecasting. Engineering Science & Technology Journal, 4(6), 341-356.
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15. Aderibigbe, A. O., Ohenhen, P. E., Nwaobia, N. K., Gidiagba, J. O., & Ani, E. C. (2023). Artificial intelligence in developing countries: bridging the gap between potential and implementation. Computer Science & IT Research Journal, 4(3), 185-199.
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17. Afolabi, J. O. A., Olatoye, F. O., Eboigbe, E. O., Abdul, A. A., & Daraojimba, H. O. (2023). Revolutionizing retail: hr tactics for improved employee and customer engagement. International Journal of Applied Research in Social Sciences, 5(10), 487-514.
18. Alahira, J., Ani, E. C., Ninduwezuor-Ehiobu, N., Olu-lawal, K. A., & Ejibe, I. (2024). The role of fine arts in promoting sustainability within industrial and graphic design: a cross disciplinary approach. International Journal of Applied Research in Social Sciences, 6(3), 326-336.
19. Alahira, J., Ninduwezuor-Ehiobu, N., Olu-lawal, K. A., Ani, E. C., & Ejibe, I. (2024). Eco-innovative graphic design practices: leveraging fine arts to enhance sustainability in industrial design. Engineering Science & Technology Journal, 5(3), 783-793.
20. Alahira, J., Nwokediegwu, Z. Q. S., Obaigbena, A., Ugwuanyi, E. D., & Daraojimba, O. D. (2024). Integrating sustainability into graphic and industrial design education: A fine arts perspective. International Journal of Science and Research Archive, 11(1), 2206-2213.
21. Al-Hamad, N., Oladapo, O. J., Afolabi, J. O. A., & Olatundun, F. (2023). Enhancing educational outcomes through strategic human resources (hr) initiatives: Emphasizing faculty development, diversity, and leadership excellence. Education, 1-11.
22. Ani, E. C., Olajiga, O. K., Sikhakane, Z. Q., & Olatunde, T. M., Igbinenikaro O. P., (2024). Renewable energy integration for water supply: a comparative review of African and US initiatives. Engineering Science & Technology Journal, 5(3), 1086-1096.
23. Atadoga, A., Sodiya, E. O., Umoga, U. J., & Amoo, O. O. (2024). A comprehensive review of machine learning’s role in enhancing network security and threat detection. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 21(2), 877-886.
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25. Atadoga, A., Umoga, U. J., Lottu, O. A., & Sodiya, E. O. (2024). Advancing green computing: Practices, strategies, and impact in modern software development for environmental sustainability. World Journal of Advanced Engineering Technology and Sciences, 11(1), 220-230.
26. Atadoga, A., Umoga, U. J., Lottu, O. A., & Sodiya, E. O. (2024). Evaluating the impact of cloud computing on accounting firms: A review of efficiency, scalability, and data security. Global Journal of Engineering and Technology Advances, 18(02), 065-074.
27. Ayorinde, O. B., Daudu, C. D., Etukudoh, E. A., Adefemi, A., Adekoya, O. O., & Okoli, C. E., Igbinenikaro O. P., (2024). Climate risk assessment in petroleum operations: a review of csr practices for sustainable resilience in the United States and Africa. Engineering Science & Technology Journal, 5(2), 385-401.
28. Ayorinde, O. B., Etukudoh, E. A., Nwokediegwu, Z. Q. S., Ibekwe, K. I., Umoh, A. A., & Hamdan, A., Igbinenikaro O. P., (2024). Renewable energy projects in Africa: A review of climate finance strategies. International Journal of Science and Research Archive, 11(1), 923-932.
29. Babatunde, F.O., Omotayo, A.B., Oluwole, O.I., & Ukoba, K. (2021, April). A Review on Waste-wood reinforced polymer matrix composites for sustainable development. Engineering Science & Technology Journal, Volume 5, Issue 4, April 2024
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33. Dada, M. A., Majemite, M. T., Obaigbena, A., Oliha, J. S., & Biu, P. W. (2024). Zero-waste initiatives and circular economy in the US: A review: Exploring strategies, outcomes, and challenges in moving towards a more sustainable consumption model.
34. Dada, M. A., Obaigbena, A., Majemite, M. T., Oliha, J. S., & Biu, P. W. (2024). Innovative approaches to waste resource management: implications for environmental sustainability and policy. Engineering Science & Technology Journal, 5(1), 115-127.
35. Dada, M. A., Oliha, J. S., Majemite, M. T., Obaigbena, A., & Biu, P. W. (2024). A review of predictive analytics in the exploration and management of us geological resources. Engineering Science & Technology Journal, 5(2), 313-337.
36. Dada, M. A., Oliha, J. S., Majemite, M. T., Obaigbena, A., Nwokediegwu, Z. Q. S., & Daraojimba, O. H. (2024). Review of nanotechnology in water treatment: Adoption in the USA and Prospects for Africa. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 21(1), 1412-1421.
37. Ebirim, W., Montero, D. J. P., Ani, E. C., Ninduwezuor-Ehiobu, N., Usman, F. O., & Olu-lawal, K. A. (2024). The role of agile project management in driving innovation in energyefficient hvac solutions. Engineering Science & Technology Journal, 5(3), 662-673.
38. Ebirim, W., Ninduwezuor-Ehiobu, N., Usman, F. O., Olu-lawal, K. A., Ani, E. C., & Montero, D. J. P. (2024). Project management strategies for accelerating energy efficiency in hvac systems amidst climate change. International Journal of Management & Entrepreneurship Research, 6(3), 512-525.
39. Ebirim, W., Olu-lawal, K. A., Ninduwezuor-Ehiobu, N., Montero, D. J. P., Usman, F. O., & Ani, E. C. (2024). Leveraging project management tools for energy efficiency in hvac operations: a path to climate resilience. Engineering Science & Technology Journal, 5(3), 653-661.
40. Ebirim, W., Usman, F. O., Montero, D. J. P., Ninduwezuor-Ehiobu, N., Ani, E. C., & Olu-lawal, K. A. (2024). Assessing the impact of climate change on hvac system design and project management. International Journal of Applied Research in Social Sciences, 6(3), 173-184.
41. Ebirim, W., Usman, F. O., Montero, D. J. P., Ninduwezuor-Ehiobu, N., Olu-lawal, K. A., & Ani, E. C. (2024). Project management strategies for implementing energy-efficient cooling solutions in emerging data center markets. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 21(2), 1802-1809.
42. Esho, A. O. O., Iluyomade, T. D., Olatunde, T. M., Igbinenikaro, O. P. (2024). Electrical Propulsion Systems For Satellites: A Review Of Current Technologies And Future Prospects. International Journal of Frontiers in Engineering and Technology Research. 06,(02), 035–044.
43. Esho, A. O. O., Iluyomade, T. D., Olatunde, T. M., Igbinenikaro, O. P. (2024). Next-Generation Materials For Space Electronics: A Conceptual Review. Open Access Research Journal of Engineering and Technology, 06,(02), 051–062.
44. Esho, A. O. O., Iluyomade, T. D., Olatunde, T. M., Igbinenikaro, O. P. (2024). A Comprehensive Review Of Energy-Efficient Design In Satellite Communication Systems. International Journal of Engineering Research Updates. 06,(02), 013–025.
45. Ebirim, W., Usman, F. O., Olu-lawal, K. A., Ninduwesuor-Ehiobu, N., Ani, E. C., & Montero, D. J. P., Igbinenikaro, (2024). Optimizing energy efficiency in data center cooling towers through Engineering Science & Technology Journal, Volume 5, Issue 4, April 2024
46. Igbinenikaro O. P., Adekoya, & Etukudoh, P.No. 1281-1302 Page 1297predictive maintenance and project management. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 21(2), 1782-1790.
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48. Etukudoh, E. A., Igbinenikaro O. P. (2024). Theoretical frameworks of ecopfm predictive maintenance (ecopfm) predictive maintenance system. Engineering Science & Technology Journal, 5(3), 913-923.
49. Etukudoh, E. A., Igbinenikaro O. P., Adefemi, A., Ilojianya, V. I., Umoh, A. A., Ibekwe, K. I., & Nwokediegwu, Z. Q. S. (2024). A Review of sustainable transportation solutions: Innovations, challenges, and future directions. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 21(1), 1440-1452.
50. Etukudoh, E. A., Igbinenikaro O. P., Fabuyide, A., Ibekwe, K. I., Sonko, S., & Ilojianya, V. I. (2024). Electrical engineering in renewable energy systems: a review of design and integration challenges. Engineering Science & Technology Journal, 5(1), 231-244.
51. Etukudoh, E. A., Hamdan, Igbinenikaro O. P., A., Ilojianya, V. I., Daudu, C. D., & Fabuyide, A. (2024). Electric vehicle charging infrastructure: a comparative review in Canada, USA, and Africa. Engineering Science & Technology Journal, 5(1), 245-258.
52. Etukudoh, E. A., Ilojianya, Igbinenikaro O. P., V. I., Ayorinde, O. B., Daudu, C. D., Adefemi, A., & Hamdan, A. (2024). Review of climate change impact on water availability in the USA and Africa. International Journal of Science and Research Archive, 11(1), 942-951.
53. Etukudoh, E. A., Nwokediegwu, Igbinenikaro O. P., Z. Q. S., Umoh, A. A., Ibekwe, K. I., Ilojianya, V. I., & Adefemi, A. (2024). Solar power integration in Urban areas: A review of design innovations and efficiency enhancements. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 21(1), 1383-1394.
54. Etukudoh, E. A., Usman, F. O., Ilojianya, Igbinenikaro O. P, V. I., Daudu, C. D., Umoh, A. A., & Ibekwe, K. I. (2024). Mechanical engineering in automotive innovation: A review of electric vehicles and future trends. International Journal of Science and Research Archive, 11(1), 579-589.
55. Francis, H., & Traykovski, P., Igbinenikaro O. P., (2021). Development of a highly portable unmanned surface vehicle for surf zone bathymetric surveying. Journal of Coastal Research, 37(5), 933-945.
56. Gourvenec, S., Sturt, F., Reid, E., & Trigos, F. (2022). Global assessment of historical, current and forecast ocean energy infrastructure: Implications for marine space planning, sustainable design and end-of-engineered-life management. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 154, 111794.
57. Hamdan, A., Ibekwe, K. I., Ilojianya, V. I., Sonko, Igbinenikaro O. P., S., & Etukudoh, E. A. (2024). AI in renewable energy: A review of predictive maintenance and energy optimization. International Journal of Science and Research Archive, 11(1), 718-729.
58. Ibeh, C. V., Awonuga, K. F., Okoli, U. I., Ike, C. U., Ndubuisi, N. L., & Obaigbena, A. (2024). A review of agile methodologies in product lifecycle management: bridging theory and practice for enhanced digital technology integration. Engineering Science & Technology Journal, 5(2), 448-459.
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60. Ibekwe, K. I., Etukudoh, E. A., Adefemi, A., Nwokediegwu, Z. Q. S., Umoh, A. A., & Usman, F. O. Igbinenikaro O. P. (2024). Software tools in energy management: utilization and impact in Canada, USA, and Africa. International Journal of Science and Research Archive, 11(1), 570-578.
61. Ibekwe, K. I., Etukudoh, E. A., Nwokediegwu, Igbinenikaro O. P., Z. Q. S., Umoh, A. A., Adefemi, A., & Ilojianya, V. I. (2024). Energy security in the global context: a comprehensive review of geopolitical dynamics and policies.
62. Engineering Science & Technology Journal, 5(1), 152-168. Igbinenikaro, O. P., Adekoya, O. O., & Etukudoh, E. A. (2024). Fostering Cross-Disciplinary Collaboration In Offshore Projects: Strategies And Best Practices. International Journal of Management & Entrepreneurship Research. 6,(4), 1176-1189.
63. Igbinenikaro, O. P., Adekoya, O. O., & Etukudoh, E. A. (2024). Review Of Modern Bathymetric Survey Techniques And Their Impact On Offshore Energy Development. Engineering Science & Technology Journal. 5,(4), 1281-1302.
64. Igbinenikaro, O. P., Adekoya, O. O., & Etukudoh, E. A. (2024). Conceptualizing Sustainable Offshore Operations: Integration Of Renewable Energy Systems. International Journal of Frontiers in Science and Technology Research. 06(02), 031–043.
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66. Igbinenikaro, O. P., Adekoya, O. O., & Etukudoh, E. A. (2024). A Comparative Review Of Subsea Navigation Technologies In Offshore Engineering Projects. International Journal of Frontiers in Engineering and Technology Research. 06,(02), 019–034.
67. Ibekwe, K. I., Fabuyide, A., Hamdan, A., Ilojianya, V. I., & Etukudoh, E. A., Igbinenikaro. O. P., (2024). Energy efficiency through variable frequency drives: industrial applications in Canada, USA, and Africa. International Journal of Science and Research Archive, 11(1), 730-736.
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73. Majemite, M. T., Dada, M. A., Obaigbena, A., Oliha, J. S., Biu, P. W., & Henry, D. O., Igbinenikaro. O. P., (2024). A review of data analytics techniques in enhancing environmental risk assessments in the US Geology Sector.
74. Majemite, M. T., Obaigbena, A., Dada, M. A., Oliha, J. S., & Biu, P. W. (2024). Evaluating the role of big data in us disaster mitigation and response: a geological and business perspective.
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76. Monacchi, G., Arcangeletti, G., Pigliapoco, M., Catena, P., Ziero, L., Castriotta, G., & Loi, A., Igbinenikaro O. P. (2023, April). An Innovative Set of Tools for a Sustainable and Safe Offshore Pipelaying. In Offshore Technology Conference (p. D041S055R008). OTC.
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80. Nwokediegwu, Z. Q. S., Majemite, M. T., Obaigbena, A., Oliha, J. S., Dada, M. A., & Daraojimba, O. H. (2024). Review of water reuse and recycling: USA successes vs. African challenges.
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86. Obaigbena, A., Lottu, O. A., Ugwuanyi, E. D., Jacks, B. S., Sodiya, E. O., & Daraojimba, O. D. (2024). AI and human-robot interaction: A review of recent advances and challenges. GSC Advanced Research and Reviews, 18(2), 321-330.
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88. Obiuto, N. C., Ninduwezuor-Ehiobu, N., Ani, E. C., & Andrew, K. (2024). Implementing circular economy principles to enhance safety and environmental sustainability in manufacturing.
89. Obiuto, N. C., Ninduwezuor-Ehiobu, N., Ani, E. C., Olu-lawal, K. A., & Ugwuanyi, E. D. (2024). Simulation-driven strategies for enhancing water treatment processes in chemical engineering: addressing environmental challenges. Engineering Science & Technology Journal, 5(3), 854-872.
90. Obiuto, N. C., Olu-lawal, K. A., Ani, E. C., & Ninduwezuor-Ehiobu, N. (2024). Chemical management in electronics manufacturing: Protecting worker health and the environment. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 21(3), 010-018.
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94. Ogedengbe, D. E., James, O. O., Afolabi, J. O. A., Olatoye, F. O., & Eboigbe, E. O. (2023). Human Resources In The Era of The Fourth Industrial Revolution (4ir): Strategies and Innovations In The Global South.
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96. Ohalete, N. C., Aderibigbe, A. O., Ani, E. C., Ohenhen, P. E., & Akinoso, A. E., Igbinenikaro. O. P., (2023). Data science in energy consumption analysis: a review of ai techniques in identifying patterns and efficiency opportunities.
97. Engineering Science & Technology Journal, 4(6), 357-380.Ohalete, N. C., Aderibigbe, A. O., Ani, E. C., Ohenhen, P. E., & Akinoso, A., Igbinenikaro O. P., (2023). Advancements in predictive maintenance in the oil and gas industry: A review of AI and data science applications.
98. Ohalete, N. C., Ayo-Farai, O., Olorunsogo, T. O., Maduka, P., & Olorunsogo, T. (2024). AI driven environmental health disease modeling: a review of techniques and their impact on public health in the usa and african contexts. International Medical Science Research Journal, 4(1), 51-73.
99. Ohalete, N. C., Ayo-Farai, O., Onwumere, C., & Paschal, C. (2024). Navier-stokes equations in biomedical engineering: A critical review of their use in medical device development in the USA and Africa.
100. Ohalete, N. C., Ayo-Farai, O., Onwumere, C., Maduka, C. P., & Olorunsogo, T. O. (2024). Functional data analysis in health informatics: A comparative review of developments and applications in the USA and Africa.
101. Oke, A. E., Aliu, J., Ebekozien, A., Akinpelu, T. M., Olatunde, T. M., & Ogunsanya, O. A. (2024). Strategic drivers for the deployment of energy economics principles in the developing construction industry: A Nigerian perspective. Environmental Progress & Sustainable Energy, e14351.
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103. Olajiga, O. K., Ani, E. C., Olu-lawal, K. A., Montero, D. J. P., & Adeleke, A. K., Igbinenikaro O. P. (2024). Intelligent monitoring systems in manufacturing: current state and future perspectives. Engineering Science & Technology Journal, 5(3), 750-759.
104. Olajiga, O. K., Ani, E. C., Sikhakane, Z. Q., & Olatunde, T. M., Igbinenikaro. O. P., (2024). A comprehensive review of energy-efficient lighting technologies and trends. Engineering Science & Technology Journal, 5(3), 1097-1111.
105. Olajiga, O. K., Ani, E. C., Sikhakane, Z. Q., & Olatunde, T. M., Igbinenikaro. O. P., (2024). Assessing the potential of energy storage solutions for grid efficiency: a review. Engineering Science & Technology Journal, 5(3), 1112-1124.
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109. Ren, Z., Verma, A. S., Li, Y., Teuwen, J. J., & Jiang, Z., Igbinenikaro O. P., (2021). Offshore wind turbine operations and maintenance: A state-of-the-art review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 144, 110886.
110. Saylam, K., Briseno, A., Averett, A. R., & Andrews, J. R. (2023). Analysis of depths derived by airborne lidar and satellite imaging to support bathymetric mapping efforts with varying environmental conditions: Lower Laguna Madre, Gulf of Mexico. Remote Sensing, 15(24), 5754.
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119. Usman, F. O., Ani, E. C., Ebirim, W., Montero, D. J. P., Olu-lawal, K. A., & Ninduwezuor &Ehiobu, N., Igbinenikaro O. P. (2024). Integrating renewable energy solutions in the manufacturing INDUSTRY: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES: A REVIEW. Engineering Science & Technology Journal, 5(3), 674-703.
120. Uwaoma, P. U., Eboigbe, E. O., Eyo-Udo, N. L., Ijiga, A. C., Kaggwa, S., & Daraojimba, A. I. (2023). Mixed reality in US retail: A review: Analyzing the immersive shopping
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