Analysis the Land Cover and Land Use (LULC) Change by Unsupervised Classification and the NDVI Method Around Tongi Khal, Dhaka, Bangladesh.

Urban and industrial development, along with anthropogenic activities, lead to numerous threats to Bangladesh's water bodies. Over the years, Tongi Khal has been identified as being in a threatened condition due to these activities. This research presents dynamic changes in land use and land cover (LULC) and the condition of Tongi Khal by using GIS and remote sensing techniques.
The LULC changes in the study area are illustrated using Landsat satellite images from 1990, 2000, 2010, 2015, 2020, and 2025 obtained through unsupervised classification and the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) method in ArcGIS 10.3. From 1990 to 2025, the LULC classification in the study area shows a reduction in water bodies and vegetation from 1990 to 2015, followed by an increase in vegetation in 2020 due to COVID19. In 2025, due to excessive industrial development, construction projects, canal infilling, and urban expansion, the waterbody was reduced, resulting in deterioration of the environmental conditions of Tongi Khal. Extensive urban development has led to the conversion of trees into grassland, bare land, and housing to accommodate population growth from 1990 to 2025.
This study will enhance understanding of effective measures to control excessive anthropogenic activities and canal infilling, and to maintain water quantity and support natural restoration processes, such as at Tongi Khal. It will also contribute to future urban land-use planning and river management to tackle the ongoing, alarming pollution and unplanned industrialization.

Land use is the use of land, and land cover refers to the physical surface materials

1. Admasu, S., Yeshitela, K., & Argaw, M. (2023). Impact of land use land cover changes on ecosystem service values in the Dire and Legedadi watersheds, central highlands of Ethiopia: Implication for landscape management decision making. Heliyon, 9(4). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Bewket, W. & Abebe, S. (2013). Land-use and land-cover change and its environmental implications in a tropical highland watershed, Ethiopia. International Journal of Environmental Studies, 70(1), 126–139. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207233.2012.755765. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. Bird, J., Li, Y., Rahman, H. Z., Rama, M., & Venables, A. J. (2018). Toward Great Dhaka: A New Urban Development Paradigm Eastward. The World Bank. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. Das, P., Ali, M. A., & Fattah, K. P. (2020). Assessment of contaminant flux from heavily polluted benthic sediment of Tongi Khal (canal): an ex-situ approach. Desalination and Water Treatment, 179, 272-279. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. Dewan, A.M. & Yamaguchi, Y. (2009). Land Use and Land Cover Change in Greater Dhaka, Bangladesh: Using Remote Sensing to Promote Sustainable Urbanization. Applied Geography, 29, 390–401. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Mao, R. & Zeng, D. H. (2010). Changes in soil particulate organic matter, microbial biomass, and activity following afforestation of marginal agricultural lands in a semi-arid area of Northeast China. Environmental Management, 46(1), 110-116. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. Nyssen, J., Poesen, J., Moeyersons, J., Deckers, J., Haile, M., & Lang, A. (2004). Human impact on the environment in the Ethiopian and Eritrean highlands—a state of the art. Earth-science reviews, 64(3-4), 273– 320. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. Rahman, M. M., & Szabó, G. (2021). Impact of land use and land cover changes on urban ecosystem service value in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Land, 10(8), 793. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. Sakib, M. S., Alam, S., Shampa, Murshed, S. B., Kirtunia, R., Mondal, M. S., & Chowdhury, A. I. A. (2024). Assessing flooding extent and potential exposure to river pollution from urbanizing peripheral rivers within Greater Dhaka watershed. Scientific Reports [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. Sharmin Monica, H. A., Hassan, M. Q., Raza, J., & Khandaker, N. (2024). Comparative analysis of unsupervised land cover and land use (LCLU) classification and the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) methods for assessing areas around Tongi Khal, Dhaka, Bangladesh (GSA Connects 2024 Abstract). Geological Society of America. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. Tahiru, A. D. (2020). Effect of land use and land cover changes on water quality. Springer, Applied Water Science 10:198 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. Tania, A.H., Gazi, M.Y. & Mia, M.B. (2021). Evaluation of water quantity–quality, floodplain land use, and land surface temperature (LST) of Turag River in Bangladesh: an integrated approach of geospatial, field, and laboratory analyses. SN Appl. Sci. 3, 63. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Xu, X., Shrestha, S., Gilani, H., Gumma, M. K., Siddiqui, B. N., & Jain, A. K. (2020). Dynamics and drivers of land use and land cover changes in Bangladesh. Regional Environmental Change, 20(2), 54. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. Zhao, J., Wang, L., Yang, H., Wu, P., Wang, B., Pan, C., & Wu, Y. (2022). A land cover classification method for high-resolution remote sensing images based on an NDVI deep learning fusion network. Remote Sensing, 14(21), 5455. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. Fisher, P. F., Comber, A. J., & Wadsworth, R. (2005). Land use and land cover: Contradiction or complement. In P. Fisher & D. Unwin (Eds.), Re-presenting GIS (pp. 85–98). John Wiley & Sons. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. Bhuiyan, M. A. H. (2025). Geospatial analysis of urbanization dynamics and ecosystem services for sustainable urban development in Dhaka city, Bangladesh. [Doctoral dissertation, Hokkaido University]. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. REACH (2024). Monitoring and modelling river water quality to protect Dhaka's river system. University of Oxford/BUET. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. Mobin, M. N., Islam, M. S., Mia, M. Y., & Bakali, B. (2014). Analysis of physicochemical properties of the Turag River water, Tongi, Gazipur in Bangladesh. Journal of Environmental Science and Natural Resources, 7(1), 27-33. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. Hosen, M. S., Islam, S., Paul, A., & Bhuiyan, M. M. H. (2021). Geospatial evaluation of land use and land cover changes in Ashulia industrial hub in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Grassroots Journal of Natural Resources, 4(4), 27–41. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. Alam, M. J. (2018). Rapid urbanization and changing land values in mega cities: Implications for housing development projects in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Bandung Journal of Global South, 5(2), 1–19. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. Khan, N. S., Shawal, S., Hossain, M. A., Tasnim, N., Whitehead, P. G., & Rahman, M. (2024). Assessing flooding extent and potential exposure to river pollution from urbanizing peripheral rivers within Greater Dhaka watershed. Scientific Reports, 14, 29341. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

22. Sultana, M. S., Islam, G. M. T., & Islam, A. S. (2011). Pre- and Post-Urban Wetland Area in Dhaka City, Bangladesh: A Remote Sensing and GIS Analysis. Journal of Water Resource and Protection. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

23. Zakir, H. M., Sattar, M. A., & Quadir, Q. F. (2016). Impact of urbanization and industrialization on irrigation water quality of a canal - a case study of Tongi canal, Bangladesh. Journal of Environmental Science and Natural Resources, 9(2), 109-115. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

24. Rume, T., & Islam, S. M. D. (2020). Environmental effects of COVID-19 pandemic and potential strategies of sustainability. Heliyon, 6(9), e04965. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

25. Schreinemachers, P., Kumar, S.S. & Uddin, N.M. (2025). Impact of home gardens promoted among urban residents in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Food Sec. 17, 1039–1052. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

26. Islam, M. M., & Mamun, M. M. I. (2015). Variations of NDVI and Its Association with Rainfall and Evapotranspiration over Bangladesh. Rajshahi University Journal of Science and Engineering, 43, 21–28. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

• Navigating Climate Challenges in Tourism: Sustainable Practices and Innovative Approaches
• Siberia and the Far East: Development vs. Sustainability
• From Potable Water to Drinking Water: A Conceptual Clarification Based on Individual Boreholes in African Peri-Urban Areas
• Traditional Agricultural Equipment’s and Using Techniques of the Santal Tribe in the Context of Tourism Development
• Dynamics of the Development of Natural Gravitational Processes (Landslides) In the Medium-Mountain Regions of Georgia: The Case of Imereti (2010–2022)