Ensuring Food Integrity and Security Through Macro and Micro Analysis: Current Trends and Industrial Applications

This review critically reassesses the analytical dichotomy between Macro and Micro-parameters to propose a validated, synergistic Data Fusion framework that bypasses the “Adulteration Gap” and the “Economic Wall” in global food systems. A systematic review was conducted utilizing a tiered search strategy across Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. The methodology progressed from macro-level contextual filtering (drivers like the “Three Lethal Cs”) to micro-level technical validation of instrumental data, culminating in a nexus integration that cross-references socio-economic impacts with forensic protocols. The study identifies that traditional Macro analysis (proximate composition) is vulnerable to sophisticated fraud, as demonstrated by the melamine nitrogen loophole in milk. Conversely, Micro analysis (HPLC, IRMS) provides essential forensic specificity, identifying isotopic fingerprints in honey, but is often hindered by high operational costs. Industrial applications reveal that transitioning from “Lab” to “Line” via Process Analytical Technology (PAT) and utilizing Green Chemistry (NADES) effectively mitigates matrix interference and reduces waste. An integrated Nexus approach, employing rapid Macro-sensors as a first line of defense followed by targeted Microverification, provides a legally defensible and commercially viable standard. This framework contributes significantly to socio-economic protection, public health safety, and global environmental sustainability by bridging the divide between bulk composition and trace molecular integrity.

Food Integrity-Security, Economically Motivated Adulteration (EMA), Process Analytical Technology (PAT), Macro-Micro Analysis Dichotomy, Analytical Data Fusion.

1. Abedini, R., Jahed Khaniki, G., Molaee Aghaee, E., Sadighara, P., Nazmara, S., Akbari-Adergani, B., & Naderi, M. (2021). Determination of melamine contamination in chocolates containing powdered milk by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Journal of Environmental Health Science and Engineering, 19(1), 165–171. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40201-020-00590-w [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Ali, D. H. A. (2024). Food security in Malaysia: An empirical analysis of macroeconomic determinants. International Journal of Academic Research in Economics and Management Sciences, 13(3). https://doi.org/10.6007/IJAREMS/v13-i3/22076 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. Ali, M. H., Iranmanesh, M., Tan, K. H., Zailani, S., & Omar, N. A. (2022). Impact of supply chain integration on halal food supply chain integrity and food quality performance. Journal of Islamic Marketing, 13(7), 1515–1534. https://doi.org/10.1108/JIMA-08-2020-0250 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. Al-Omairi, M., Alamir, S. G., Salman, B. I., El Deeb, S., Alrashdi, Y. B. A., Al-Harrasi, A., & Ibrahim, A. E. (2025). Investigating trace and macro-element composition of herbal and nutraceutical dietary supplements marketed in Oman: Insights into safety and labeling. Biological Trace Element Research, 203(5), 2911–2923. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-024-04343-w [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. Alrobaish, W. S., Jacxsens, L., Luning, P. A., & Vlerick, P. (2021). Food integrity climate in food businesses: Conceptualization, development, and validation of a self-assessment tool. Foods, 10(6), Article 1302. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10061302 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Ascencio-López, W. J., Zayas-Pérez, M. T., Munguía-Pérez, R., Nevárez-Moorillón, G. V., Huerta-Lara, M., Avelino-Flores, M. D. C. G., . . . Avila-Sosa, R. (2025). Food security in a college community: Assessing availability, access, and consumption patterns in a Mexican context. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 22(9), Article 1314. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22091314 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. Basri, K. N. (2025). Integration of spectroscopy and chemometric analysis for food authentication: A review. Halalsphere, 5(2), 69–79. https://doi.org/10.31436/hs.v5i2.127 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. Bento, J. A. C., Silva, M. A., Rosário Neto, A., Souza Neto, M. A. D., Narciso, M. G., Colombari Filho, J. M., & Bassinello, P. Z. (2024). Integration of physicochemical and instrumental quality data to estimate the texture of polished rice. Ciência Rural, 54, Article e20230327. https://doi.org/10.1590/01038478cr20230327 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. Calloway, E. E., Carpenter, L. R., Gargano, T., Sharp, J. L., & Yaroch, A. L. (2023). New measures to assess the “other” three pillars of food security—availability, utilization, and stability. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 20(1), Article 51. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966023-01451-z [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. Campomanes, F., Marshall, M., & Nelson, A. (2024). A method for estimating physical and economic food access at high spatial resolution. Food Security, 16(1), 47–64. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-023-014041 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. Campos, B. M., Ramalho, E., Marmelo, I., Noronha, J. P., Malfeito-Ferreira, M., Mata, P., & Diniz, M. S. (2022). Proximate composition, physicochemical and microbiological characterization of edible seaweeds available in the Portuguese market. Frontiers in Bioscience-Elite, 14(4), Article 26. https://doi.org/10.31083/j.fbe1404026 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. Carrillo, C., Tomasevic, I. B., Barba, F. J., & Kamiloglu, S. (2023). Modern analytical techniques for berry authentication. Chemosensors, 11(9), Article 500. https://doi.org/10.3390/chemosensors11090500 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Casian, T., Nagy, B., Kovács, B., Galata, D. L., Hirsch, E., & Farkas, A. (2022). Challenges and opportunities of implementing data fusion in process analytical technology—A review. Molecules, 27(15), Article 4846. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27154846 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. Chaudhary, V., Kajla, P., Dewan, A., Pandiselvam, R., Socol, C. T., & Maerescu, C. M. (2022). Spectroscopic techniques for authentication of animal origin foods. Frontiers in Nutrition, 9, Article 979205. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2022.979205 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. Chemat, F., Abert-Vian, M., Fabiano-Tixier, A. S., Strube, J., Uhlenbrock, L., Gunjevic, V., & Cravotto, G. (2019). Green extraction of natural products: Origins, current status, and future challenges. TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 118, Article 248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2019.05.037 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. Couto, C., & Keating, E. (2025). Trace elements in food: Nutritional and safety issues. Foods, 14(16), Article 2802. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14162802 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. Dragoev, S. G. (2024). Lipid peroxidation in muscle foods: Impact on quality, safety and human health. Foods, 13(5), Article 797. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13050797 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. Dua, A., Bahman, S., Kelly, S., Dogra, S., & Sharma, K. (2025). Authentication of Indian honey based on carbon stable isotope ratio analysis—Verification of Indian regulatory criteria. Foods, 14(8), Article 1289. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14081289 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. Fernando, Y., Saedan, R., Shaharudin, M. S., & Mohamed, A. (2021). Integrity in halal food supply chain towards the society 5.0. Journal of Governance and Integrity, 4(2), 103–114. https://doi.org/10.15282/jgi.4.2.2021.5948 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. Frigerio, J., Campone, L., Giustra, M. D., Buzzelli, M., Piccoli, F., Galimberti, A., . . . Labra, M. (2024). Convergent technologies to tackle challenges of modern food authentication. Heliyon, 10(11), Article e32297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e32297 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. Gallegos, D., Booth, S., Pollard, C. M., Chilton, M., & Kleve, S. (2023). Food security definition, measures and advocacy priorities in high-income countries: A Delphi consensus study. Public Health Nutrition, 26(10), 1986–1996. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980023000915 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

22. García-Díez, J., Gonçalves, C., Grispoldi, L., Cenci-Goga, B., & Saraiva, C. (2021). Determining food stability to achieve food security. Sustainability, 13(13), Article 7222. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13137222 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

23. Ham, J. H., Lee, Y. J., Lee, S. S., & Kim, H. Y. (2025). Food fraud in plant-based proteins: Analytical strategies and regulatory perspectives. Foods, 14(9), Article 1548. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14091548 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

24. 24. Heghedűș-Mîndru, G., Negrea, P., Trașcă, T. I., Ștef, D. S., Cocan, I., & Heghedűș-Mîndru, R. C. (2023). Food intake of macro and trace elements from different fresh vegetables taken from Timisoara Market, Romania—Chemometric analysis of the results. Foods, 12(4), Article 749. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12040749 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

25. Henry, B., Garai, R., & Kiong, W. S. (2025). Food security: Perspectives from the Bidayuh community, Sarawak, Malaysia. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science. https://doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.908000442 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

26. Kharbach, M. (2025). AI-powered advances in data handling for enhanced food analysis: From chemometrics to machine learning. Foods, 14(19), Article 3415. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14193415 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

27. Kharbach, M., Alaoui Mansouri, M., Taabouz, M., & Yu, H. (2023). Current application of advancing spectroscopy techniques in food analysis: Data handling with chemometric approaches. Foods, 12(14), Article 2753. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12142753 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

28. Kiani-Salmi, N., Bahramian, B., Abedi-Firoozjah, R., Ebrahimi, A., Khezerlou, A., Tavassoli, M., & Ehsani, A. (2025). Recent advances and trends in magnetic nanoparticle-assisted aptasensors for foodborne bacteria monitoring: Applications, challenges, and updates. Food Chemistry: X, 25, Article 103156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fochx.2025.103156 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

29. Kpalo, S. Y., Zainuddin, M. F., Manaf, L. A., & Roslan, A. M. (2020). Production and characterization of hybrid briquettes from corncobs and oil palm trunk bark under a low pressure densification technique. Sustainability, 12(6), Article 2468. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12062468 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

30. Ling, E. K., & Wahab, S. N. (2020). Integrity of food supply chain: Going beyond food safety and food quality. International Journal of Productivity and Quality Management, 29(2), 216–232. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJPQM.2020.105963 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

31. Liu, X., Zhu, X., Han, Z., & Liu, H. (2025). Recent advances in the mechanisms of quality degradation and control technologies for peanut butter: A literature review. Foods, 14(1), Article 105. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14010105 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

32. Munialo, C. D., & Mellor, D. D. (2024). A review of the impact of social disruptions on food security and food choice. Food Science & Nutrition, 12(1), 13–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.3752 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

33. Nascimento, A. P. S., Duarte, M. E. M., Rocha, A. P. T., & Barros, A. N. (2025). Bioactive compounds, technological advances, and sustainable applications of avocado (Persea americana Mill.): A critical review. Foods, 14(15), Article 2746. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14152746 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

34. Papadopoulou, A., Boti, V., & Nannou, C. (2025). Towards greener sample preparation: A review on microQuEChERS advances and applications in food, environmental, and biological matrices. Separations, 12(12), Article 339. https://doi.org/10.3390/separations12120339 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

35. Pérez-Escamilla, R. (2024). Food and nutrition security definitions, constructs, frameworks, measurements, and applications: Global lessons. Frontiers in Public Health, 12, Article 1340149. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2024.1340149 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

36. Renyard, A., Gooding, C., Chalissery, J. M., Petrov, J., & Gries, G. (2024). Effects of macro- and micronutrients on momentary and season-long feeding responses by select species of ants. Scientific Reports, 14(1), Article 5727. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-56133-y [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

37. Robson, K., Dean, M., Haughey, S., & Elliott, C. (2021). A comprehensive review of food fraud terminologies and food fraud mitigation guides. Food Control, 120, Article 107516. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2020.107516 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

38. Rodríguez-Blázquez, S., Gómez-Mejía, E., Rosales-Conrado, N., & León-González, M. E. (2025). Recent insights into eco-friendly extraction techniques for obtaining bioactive compounds from fruit seed oils. Foods, 14(13), Article 2271. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14132271 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

39. Sahadi, N. A., & Basri, H. (2025). Determination of trace elements concentration in Saba banana samples at different maturation stages via ICP-MS. Enhanced Knowledge in Sciences and Technology, 5(2), 353– 361. https://doi.org/10.30880/ekst.2025.05.02.042 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

40. Saleh, M., & Lee, Y. (2023). Instrumental analysis or human evaluation to measure the appearance, smell, flavor, and physical properties of food. Foods, 12(18), Article 3453. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12183453 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

41. Shi, S., Zhang, K., Tian, N., Jin, Z., Liu, K., Huang, L., . . . Jiang, Y. (2025). Spectroscopic techniques combined with chemometrics for rapid detection of food adulteration: Applications, perspectives, and challenges. Food Research International, 192, Article 116459. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2025.116459 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

42. Singh, A., Nagpoore, N. K., Singh, B. N., & Thakur, M. (2024). Comprehensive analysis of micro and macro-minerals, phytochemicals and proximate composition of Cordia dichotoma G. Forst fruits. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 61(9), 1790–1799. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-024-05957-7 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

43. Sumsion, R. M., June, H. M., & Cope, M. R. (2023). Measuring food insecurity: The problem with semantics. Foods, 12(9), Article 1816. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12091816 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

44. Trziszka, T., Dobrzański, Z., Chojnacka, K., Bubel, A., Beń, H., Korczyński, M., . . . Tronina, W. (2021). Assessment of macro-, micro-, trace, and ultratrace element concentration in green-legged partridge hens’ eggs from a free-range system. Agriculture, 11(6), Article 473. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11060473 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

45. Wahid, D. N. A., Jawan, R., Nazarie, W. F. W. M., Gansau, J. A., Syahir, A., & Sabullah, M. K. (2022, August). Comparison of macro, trace and ultra-trace minerals contents of kelulut honey (Heterotrigona itama sp) from the West Coast of Sabah. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 2314(1), Article 012002. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2314/1/012002 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]