Leveraging BIM for Sustainable Orphanage Design Using Locally Sourced Materials

In Sub-Saharan Africa, and particularly Cameroon, the demand for socially inclusive and environmentally responsible architecture is growing due to rapid urbanisation, climate pressures, and the needs of vulnerable communities. Orphanages, as critical social infrastructure, are frequently delivered through cost-driven approaches that neglect sustainability and long-term performance. While Building Information Modelling (BIM) has globally advanced design precision, cost optimisation, and environmental performance analysis, its application in Africa especially for projects using eco-friendly materials such as compressed earth blocks (CEBs) remains limited. This study employs BIM, through Autodesk Revit, to design sustainable, child-centred orphanages in Cameroon using locally sourced materials. Two functionally equivalent prototypes, one with sandcrete blocks and another with CEBs, were developed and evaluated through comparative cost estimation, embodied carbon and energy analysis, and operational performance assessment, in line with life-cycle assessment (LCA) standards and thermal comfort benchmarks. Results show that CEBs delivered lower construction costs, reduced embodied impacts, and improved thermal comfort compared to sandcrete. BIM-enabled workflows enhanced quantity take-offs, integrated early LCA, and supported evidence-based material selection. This research provides one of the first regionally validated datasets on sandcrete and CEB performance in Cameroon, while proposing a replicable digital design framework for humanitarian architecture in resource-constrained Sub-Saharan contexts.

BIM, Compressed Earth Blocks (CEBs), LCA, Orphanage

1. UNEP. (2022, November 22). Traditional building practices offer sustainable solutions in African cities. United Nations Environment Programme. https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/story/traditional-building-practices-offer-sustainable-solutions-african-cities [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Awoussi, M. Y., Domtse, E. K. A., Gake, D. K., Genovese, P. V., & Dziwonou, Y. (2025). Analysis of the sustainability elements of vernacular architecture in Northern Togo: The case of the Kara Region. Sustainability, 17(6), 2450. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17062450 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. Van den Heuvel, R. (2023, February 6). How bamboo can help solve the world housing and climate crises. World Economic Forum. https://www.weforum.org/stories/2023/02/bamboo-construction-housing-climate [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. Sinha, S., & Sudarsan, J. S. (2025). Building a greener future: How earth blocks are reshaping sustainability and circular economy in construction. Architecture, 5(2), 25. https://doi.org/10.3390/architecture5020025 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. Cheng, Q., Tayeh, B. A., Abu Aisheh, Y. I., Alaloul, W. S., & Aldahdooh, Z. A. (2024). Leveraging BIM for sustainable construction: Benefits, barriers, and best practices. Sustainability, 16(17), 7654. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177654 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Gladdys, M. M., Gentil, B., & Cao, P. (2025). Sustainable strategies for improving humanitarian construction through BIM and climate analysis. Sustainability, 17(4), 1556. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17041556 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. González, P., Martínez, C., & Herrera, R. (2019). BIM for social housing in Chile: Timber prefabrication and post-disaster reconstruction. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 145(6), 04019032. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)CO.1943-7862.0001654 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. Smith, J., & Thomas, G. (2021). BIM in prefabricated housing for disaster resilience: Lessons from New Zealand. Automation in Construction, 127, 103712. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2021.103712 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. Abubakar, M., Ibrahim, Y. M., & Bala, K. (2023). Barriers to BIM adoption in Sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review. Journal of Construction in Developing Countries, 28(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.21315/jcdc2023.28.1.1 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. Clark, J. (2020, August 27). Cameroon: Using the age-old "building from mud" construction technique for greener homes. How We Made It in Africa. https://www.howwemadeitinafrica.com/cameroon-using-the-age-old-building-from-mud-construction-technique-for-greener-homes/70791/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. Zoungrana, O., Bologo/Traoré, M., Messan, A., Nshimiyimana, P., & Pirotte, G. (2021). The paradox around the social representations of compressed earth block building material in Burkina Faso: The material for the poor or the luxury material? Open Journal of Social Sciences, 9(1), 50–65. https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2021.91004 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. Maina, J. W., & Mwangi, J. (2022). Life cycle assessment of vernacular building materials in East Africa. Sustainability, 14(15), 9234. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14159234 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Abanda F.H., Tah J.H.M. & Elambo G.K. (2014a) Earth-block versus sandcrete block houses: Embodied energy and CO2 assessment. In: Pacheco-Torgal F., Lourenço P.B., Labrincha J.A., Kumar S. and Chindaprasirt P. (Editors). Eco-efficient masonry bricks and blocks: Design, properties and durability. UK: Woodhead Publishing Ltd [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. Mefire, T. D. (2025, April 23). Unlocking bamboo's potential: A sustainable future for Cameroon and Africa. Right for Education. https://rightforeducation.org/2025/04/23/unlocking-bamboos-potential-a-sustainable-future-for-cameroon-and-africa/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. Abessolo, D.B. (2022). Physical, mechanical and hygroscopic behaviour of compressed earth blocks stabilized with cement and reinforced with bamboo fibres. Int. J. Eng. Res. Afr. 29–41. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. Hogue, P. (2023). Solutions in soil: Here's why all architects should reconsider compressed earth blocks. Architizer Journal. https://architizer.com/blog/inspiration/stories/compressed-earth-blocks-sustainable-construction/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. Ebanda, F.B., Mewoli, A.E., Njom, A.E. et al. Towards sustainable construction in Cameroon: impact of tropical plant fibers on the performance of compressed earth bricks. Innov. Infrastruct. Solut. 9, 476 (2024). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. WWF. (2021). Forest conservation and sustainable timber use in Cameroon. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. Maeschauer T.T.M., Hervé P.L., Paul-salomon N.-E. and Elkana P. (2025) Exergetic analysis of a wooden building envelope in a tropical region. Results in Engineering, 27, [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. Goutsaya, J., Ntamack, G. E., Kenmeugne, B., & Charif d’Ouazzane, S. (2021). Mechanical characteristics of compressed earth blocks, compressed stabilized earth blocks and stabilized adobe bricks with cement in the town of Ngaoundere - Cameroon. Journal of Building Materials and Structures, 8(2), 139-159. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. Vincelas F.F.C., Ghislain T. and Robert T. (2017) Effects of the type of building materials on the thermal behavior of building in the hot dry climates: a case study of Maroua city, Cameroon. International Journal of Innovative Science, Engineering & Technology, Vol. 4 (3) [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

22. Fivez, R. (2024). Resisting material binaries: Unpacking persisting dichotomies of building materials in Central Africa. Les Cahiers de la recherche architecturale urbaine et paysagère, (20). https://doi.org/10.4000/craup.15067 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

23. Bolognesi, C., Bassorizzi, D., Balin, S., & Manfredi, V. (2025). An overview on LCA integration in BIM: Tools, applications, and future trends. Digital, 5(3), 31. https://doi.org/10.3390/digital5030031 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

24. Abanda F.H., Kamsu-Foguem B. & Tah J.H.M. (2017a) BIM - new rules of measurement ontology for construction cost estimation. Engineering Science & Technology, 20 (2) : 443-459 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

25. Abanda F.H., Oti A.H. & Tah J.H.M. (2017b) Integrating BIM and new rules of measurement for embodied energy and CO2 assessment. Journal of Building Engineering, 12 : 288-305 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

26. Abanda F.H. & Byers L. (2016) An investigation of the impact of building orientation on energy consumption in a domestic building using emerging BIM. Journal of Energy, 97 : 517-527 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

27. Rahmawati, D., Nugroho, A., & Prasetyo, Y. (2020). BIM for modular school reconstruction in post-tsunami Indonesia. Procedia Engineering, 212, 1120–1127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2018.01.144 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

28. Vargas-Neumann, J., Oliveira, C., Silveira, D., Varum, H. (2018). Seismic Retrofit of Adobe Constructions. In: Costa, A., Arêde, A., Varum, H. (eds) Strengthening and Retrofitting of Existing Structures. Building Pathology and Rehabilitation, vol 9. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5858-5_4 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

29. Santos, M.M., Ferreira, A.V., Lanzinha, J.C.G. (2024). Sustainable Vernacular Architecture to Improve Thermal Comfort in African Countries. In: Lanzinha, J.C.G., Qualharini, E.L. (eds) Proceedings of CIRMARE 2023. CIRMARE 2023. Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering, vol 444. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48461-2_48 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

30. Owoyemi, O., Adetunji, O., & Adebayo, Y. (2021). Lighting in the home and health: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(2), 609. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020609 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

31. Khanbabaei A. (2016) Designing orphanage with the approach of creating sense of belonging to the environment. The Turkish Online Journal of Design, Art and Communication, pp. 944-954 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

32. Helles A.S. (2021) Designing Stimulating Environment to Alleviate Orphan Children Psychological Problems. European Journal of Environment and Public Health, Vol. 5(2) [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

33. Adier, M. F. V., Sevilla, M. E. P., Valerio, D. N. R., & Ongpeng, J. M. C. (2023). Bamboo as sustainable building materials: A systematic review of properties, treatment methods, and standards. Buildings, 13(10), 2449. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13102449 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

34. Didel M. J., Matawal D.S. and Ojo E.B. (2014) Comparative cost analysis of compressed stabilised blocks and sandcrete blocks in affordable housing delivery in Nigeria. Proceedings of international housing summit on achieving affordable housing in Nigeria, Abuja, 2 – 4 June, 2014. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

35. Marzouk M. and Elshaboury N. (2022) Science mapping analysis of embodied energy in the construction industry. Energy Reports, 8, pp. 1362-1376. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

36. Taffese, W. Z., & Abegaz, K. A. (2019). Embodied Energy and CO₂ Emissions of Widely Used Building Materials: The Ethiopian Context. Buildings, 9(6), 136. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

37. Bath ICE (2024) Embodied Carbon - The ICE Database. https://circularecology.com/embodied-carbon-footprint-database.html [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

38. Zoma, F., Zongo, N., Malbila, E., Toguyeni, D.Y.K., 2025. Assessment of the embodied energy and carbon footprint of vibration-compacted adobe brick. Journal of Building Engineering 111, 113145. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

39. Abanda F.H., Nkeng G.E., Tah J.H.M., Ohandja E.N.F. & Manjia M.B. (2014b) Embodied energy and CO2 analyses of mud-brick and cement-block houses. AIMS Energy Journal, 2 (1): 18-40 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

40. Adu, T.F., Zebilila, M.D.H., Adzakey, P., Sarkodie, W.O., Mustapha, Z., 2025. Life cycle embodied carbon evaluation of a two-bedroom house construction in Ghana: A comparison between stabilized laterite and sancrete building. Heliyon 11, e42212. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

41. Obaje, J.A., Ciroma, F.B., Obaje, S.A., 2022. Suitability Analysis of Compressed Earth Bricks (CEB) for Sustainable Housing Delivery in Guinea Savannah Zone of Northern Nigeria. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

42. Saba, L.A., Ahmad, M.H., Abdul Majid, R.B., 2018. Quantifying the Embodied Carbon of a Low Energy Alternative Method of Construction (AMC) House in Nigeria. Chemical Engineering Transactions 63, 643–648. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

43. Zhang, C., Dong, W., Shen, W., & Du, Y. (2025). Influencing Factors of BIM Application Benefits in Construction Projects Based on SEM. Buildings, 15(1875). https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15111875 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

44. Basart, J.M., Martínez, A., & Calvet, T. (2023). Sustainability Potential of BIM for Building Energy Efficiency. Buildings, 15(431). https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15020431 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

45. Mbarga, R.O. & Mpele, M. (2019). BIM Review in AEC Industry and Lessons for Sub-Saharan Africa: Case of Cameroon. International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology, 10(5), 930–942. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

• A Case Study on the Development and Simulation of a High-Efficiency Flyback Converter for Portable Solar LED Lighting
• Greening the Campus: Stakeholders’ Insights on Sustainability Practices in a Chinese Higher Education Institution
• Malaysia’s Renewable Energy and CO₂ Emissions: ARDL–ECM Evidence with Policy and Managerial Implications
• Waqf within Business Model Framework: A Review and Research Agenda
• Sustainability-Driven Green City Framework and its Impact on Malaysia’s Tourism Industry Development