The Role of Agricultural Systems in Antimicrobial Proliferation: Insights from a One Health Framework

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a major health issue, exacerbated by globalization, population growth, and extensive agricultural practices. The application and overuse of antibiotics in agriculture have played a vital role in AMR development and spread in the environment. Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) contributes significantly to the exchange of antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs) among pathogens, further complicating the problem of AMR proliferation. The intensive use of antibiotics in livestock farming and animal manure as soil fertilizer, are some of the important agricultural practices which introduce resistant bacteria and ARGs to the soil ecosystems. The application of poorly treated wastewater for irrigation is another significant source of AMR in soils. The use of inorganic pesticides, heavy metals and other chemicals contribute to the selective pressure that favors the emergence of resistant strains. The unabated spread of resistant microorganisms and their ARGs poses a serious threat to the public and environmental health due to their possible transfer into the human food chain via contaminated food crops and animal products. Attempts at mitigating the challenges of AMR in agricultural soil involve a One Health approach, considering the interconnection of human, animal and environmental health. It is vital to curtail the anthropogenic spread of AMR through agroecological measures, adequate wastewater treatment, and a more sustainable use of antibiotics in livestock production. In-depth knowledge of the intricacies of the factors contributing to AMR spread and persistence in soil is necessary to explicate appropriate intervention strategies. Thus, this review critically discusses the concept of sustainable farming practices, improved systems of regulation and international alignment towards combating AMR.

Agricultural practices, AMR, HGT, One-Health, Public health, Soil contamination

1. Abate, T.A., & Birhanu, A.G. (2025). Antibiotic Use in Livestock and Environmental Antibiotic Resistance: A Narrative Review. Environmental health insights, 19, 11786302251357775. https://doi.org/10.1177/11786302251357775 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Adefisoye, M.A., & Olaniran, A.O. (2022). Does Chlorination Promote Antimicrobial Resistance in Waterborne Pathogens? Mechanistic Insight into Co-Resistance and Its Implication for Public Health. Antibiotics.11(5):564. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics11050564 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. Adefisoye, M.A., & Olaniran, A.O. (2023). Antimicrobial resistance expansion in pathogens: A review of current mitigation strategies and advances towards innovative therapy. JAC-Antimicrobial Resistance, 5(6), dlad127. https://doi.org/10.1093/jacamr/dlad127 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. Ahmed, S.K., Hussein, S., Qurbani, K., Ibrahim, R.H., Fareeq, A., Mahmood, K.A., & Shukur, F.O. (2024). Antimicrobial resistance: Impacts, challenges, and future prospects. Journal of Medicine, Surgery, and Public Health, 2, 100081. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.glmedi.2024.100081 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. Aijaz, M., Ahmad, M., Ansari, M.A., & Ahmad, S. (2023). Antimicrobial resistance in a globalized world: Current challenges and future perspectives. International Journal of Pharmaceutical & Drug Design, 1, 7–22. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Alabi, M.A., Chenia, H.Y., & Lin, J. (2025). Antibiotic use in livestock: A driver of resistance in Africa and the path to safer alternatives. MicrobiologyOpen, 14(6), e70122. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. https://doi.org/10.1002/mbo3.70122 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. Aslam, B., Khurshid, M., Arshad, M.I., Muzammil, S., Rasool, M., Yasmeen, N., Shah, T., Chaudhry, T.H., Rasool, M.H., Shahid, A., Xueshan, X., & Baloch, Z. (2021). Antibiotic resistance: One Health One World outlook. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology, 11, 771510. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2021.771510 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. Baćmaga, M., Wyszkowska, J., & Kucharski, J. (2024). Response of Soil Microbiota, Enzymes, and Plants to the Fungicide Azoxystrobin. International journal of molecular sciences, 25(15), 8104. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25158104 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. Barrero-Canosa, J., Ebeling, J., Kenny, E.F., Marx-Stoelting, P., Paege, N., Feustel, S., & Leme, D.M. (2025). Human health risk assessment for microbial pesticides in the EU: challenges and perspectives. Environmental health: A global access science source, 24(1), 43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-025-01196-1 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. Batuman, O., Britt-Ugartemendia, K., Kunwar, S., Yilmaz, S., Fessler, L., Redondo, A., Chumachenko, K., Chakravarty, S., & Wade, T. (2024). The Use and Impact of Antibiotics in Plant Agriculture: A Review. Phytopathology, 114(5), 885–909. https://doi.org/10.1094/PHYTO-10-23-0357-IA [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Bava, R., Castagna, F., Lupia, C., Poerio, G., Liguori, G., Lombardi, R., Naturale, M.D., Mercuri, C., Bulotta, R.M., Britti, D., & Palma, E. (2024). Antimicrobial Resistance in Livestock: A Serious Threat to Public Health. Antibiotics (Basel, Switzerland), 13(6), 551. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics13060551 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. Beutin, L., & Martin, A. (2012). Outbreak of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) O104:H4 infection in Germany causes a paradigm shift with regard to human pathogenicity of STEC strains. Journal of food protection, 75(2), 408–418. https://doi.org/10.4315/0362-028X.JFP-11-452 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. Bhat, B.A., Mir, R.A., Qadri, H., Dhiman, R., Almilaibary, A., Alkhanani, M., Mir, M.A. (2023). Integrons in the development of antimicrobial resistance: Critical review and perspectives. Frontiers in Microbiology, 14, 1231938. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. Bougnom, B.P., Thiele-Bruhn, S., Ricci, V., Zongo, C., Piddock, L.J.V. (2020). Raw wastewater irrigation for urban agriculture in three African cities increases the abundance of transferable antibiotic resistance genes in soil, including those encoding extended spectrum β-lactamases (ESBLs). Science of the Total Environment, 698, 134201. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. Brouwir, L., KleinJan, H., Balent, C., Quabron, G., Salmerón, I., Venditti, S., & Gritten, F. (2025). Fate and Removal of Antibiotics and Antibiotic Resistance Genes in a Rural Wastewater Treatment Plant: A Microbial Perspective of Nature-Based Versus Advanced Technologies. Microorganisms, 13(12), 2663. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms13122663 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2006). Update on multi-state outbreak of E. coli O157:H7 infections from fresh spinach (archived outbreak update). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2018). 2018 E. coli outbreak linked to romaine lettuce (archived outbreak investigation update). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2024). Salmonella outbreak linked to cucumbers (outbreak investigation summary and updates). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

22. Chung P. Y. (2025). One Health strategies in combating antimicrobial resistance: a Southeast Asian perspective. Journal of global health, 15, 03025. https://doi.org/10.7189/jogh.15.03025 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

23. Craddock, H.A., Kearney, A., Fitzpatrick, F., Finn, C., Pryce, M.T., & Fitzgerald-Hughes, D. (2025). The challenge of reducing antimicrobial resistance (AMR) across the one health landscape: Diverse perspectives on AMR risks and their mitigation in sinks, drains, and wastewater. The Science of the total environment, 992, 179935. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2025.179935 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

24. da Silva Souza, C.A., Gatica, E.A.T., da Silva, M.V., & de Souza, J.A. (2020). Occurrence of multiple antibiotic resistance in Enterococcus spp. isolated from soil used for agricultural purposes. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents, 56(2), 106034. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

25. Da Silva, R. A., Arenas, N. E., Luiza, V. L., Bermudez, J. A. Z., & Clarke, S. E. (2023). Regulations on the Use of Antibiotics in Livestock Production in South America: A Comparative Literature Analysis. Antibiotics (Basel, Switzerland), 12(8), 1303. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics12081303 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

26. De Oliveira, D.M.P., Forde, B.M., Kidd, T.J., Harris, P.N.A., Schembri, M.A., Beatson, S.A., Paterson, D.L., & Walker, M.J. (2020). Antimicrobial resistance in ESKAPE pathogens. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 33(3), e00181-19. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

27. Despotovic, M., de Nies, L., Busi, S.B., & Wilmes, P. (2023). Reservoirs of antimicrobial resistance in the context of One Health. Current Opinion in Microbiology, 73, 102291. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

28. Drechsel, P., Bartram, J., Qadir, M., & Medlicott, K.O. (2024). The challenge of supporting and monitoring safe wastewater use in agriculture in LMIC. npj Clean Water, 7, 67. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

29. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41545-024-00364-z [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

30. Duffey, M., Jumde, R. P., da Costa, R. M. A., Ropponen, H. K., Blasco, B., & Piddock, L. J. V. (2024). Extending the Potency and Lifespan of Antibiotics: Inhibitors of Gram-Negative Bacterial Efflux Pumps. ACS infectious diseases, 10(5), 1458–1482. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsinfecdis.4c00091 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

31. Elbehiry, A., Marzouk, E., Alzaben, F., Almuaither, A., Abead, B., Alamri, M., Almuzaini, A. M., & Abu-Okail, A. (2025). Emerging Technologies and Integrated Strategies for Microbial Detection and Control in Fresh Produce. Microorganisms, 13(7), 1447. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

32. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms13071447 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

33. Enshaie, E., Nigam, S., Patel, S., & Rai, V. (2025). Livestock Antibiotics Use and Antimicrobial Resistance. Antibiotics (Basel, Switzerland), 14(6), 621. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics14060621 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

34. European Food Safety Authority, & European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. (2025). The European Union summary report on antimicrobial resistance in zoonotic and indicator bacteria from humans, animals and food in 2022–2023. EFSA Journal, 23(3), e9237. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

35. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2025.9237 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

36. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2024). The State of Food and Agriculture 2024: Value-driven transformation of agrifood systems. FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cd2616en [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

37. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2025a). New study projects a rise in global livestock antibiotic use. FAO. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

38. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2025b). Better land, soil and water management key to feeding 10 billion people, FAO warns. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

39. https://www.fao.org/newsroom/detail/better-land--soil-and-water-management-key-to-feeding-10-billion-people--fao-warns/en [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

40. Galanakis C.M. (2024). The Future of Food. Foods (Basel, Switzerland), 13(4), 506. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

41. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13040506 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

42. Gauba, A., & Rahman, K.M. (2023). Evaluation of antibiotic resistance mechanisms in Gram-negative bacteria. Antibiotics, 12(11), 1590. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

43. Gens, K. D., Singer, R. S., Dilworth, T. J., Heil, E. L., & Beaudoin, A. L. (2022). Antimicrobials in Animal Agriculture in the United States: A Multidisciplinary Overview of Regulation and Utilization to Foster Collaboration: On Behalf Of the Society of Infectious Diseases Pharmacists. Open forum infectious diseases, 9(11), ofac542. https://doi.org/10.1093/ofid/ofac542 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

44. Gillieatt, B.F., & Coleman, N.V. (2024). Unravelling the mechanisms of antibiotic and heavy metal resistance co-selection in environmental bacteria. FEMS microbiology reviews, 48(4), fuae017. https://doi.org/10.1093/femsre/fuae017 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

45. Godijk, N.G., Bootsma, M.C.J., & Bonten, M.J.M. (2022). Transmission routes of antibiotic resistant bacteria: a systematic review. BMC infectious diseases, 22(1), 482. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-022-07360-z [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

46. Gomes, B., Dias, M., Cervantes, R., Pena, P., Santos, J., Vasconcelos Pinto, M., Viegas, C. (2023). One health approach to tackle microbial contamination on poultries—A systematic review. Toxics, 11, 374. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

47. Gozzer, E., Becerra-Chauca, N., Abba-Aji, M., Wirtz, V. J., Cordoba, G., Canchihuamán, F., Nagassar, R. P., Yañez-Diaz, S., Brou, P. S., Delgado-Flores, C. J., & Fazaludeen Koya, S. (2025). Antimicrobial resistance interventions in Latin America and the Caribbean: a scoping review of reported interventions between 2018-2024. Antimicrobial resistance and infection control, 14(1), 137. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

48. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13756-025-01629-z [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

49. Gufe, C., Chari, T.A., Jambwa, P., Dinginya, L., Mahlangu, P., Marowero, S.T., … Machakwa, J. (2025). A review on the occurrence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria found in abattoir effluent from resource-limited settings: The necessity of a robust One Health framework. Sustainable Environment, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/27658511.2025.2464419 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

50. Gurmessa, B., Pedretti, E.F., Cocco, S., Cardelli, V., & Corti, G. (2020). Manure anaerobic digestion effects and the role of pre- and post-treatments on veterinary antibiotics and antibiotic resistance genes removal efficiency. Science of the Total Environment, 721, 137532. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

51. Hendiani, S., Carbajo, C., Caicedo, P.N.A., Verma, T., Hansen, M.F., Agbaje, O.B.A., Mulec, I.M., Burmølle, M., & Sand, K.K. (2025). Reconciling the role of mineral surfaces for bacterial evolution: Importance of minerals in the dissemination of antibiotic resistance. The Science of the total environment, 962, 178301. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.178301 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

52. Ho, C.S., Wong, C.T.H., Aung, T.T., Lakshminarayanan, R., Mehta, J.S., Rauz, S., McNally, A., Kintses, B., Peacock, S.J., de la Fuente-Nunez, C., Hancock, R.E.W., & Ting, D.S.J. (2025). Antimicrobial resistance: a concise update. The Lancet. Microbe, 6(1), 100947. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lanmic.2024.07.010 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

54. Ifedinezi, O.V., Nnaji, N.D., Anumudu, C.K., Ekwueme, C.T., Uhegwu, C.C., Ihenetu, F.C., Obioha, P., Simon, B.O., Ezechukwu, P.S., Onyeaka, H. (2024). Environmental Antimicrobial Resistance: Implications for Food Safety and Public Health. Antibiotics, 13, 1087. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

55. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics13111087 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

56. Jian, Z., Zeng, L., Xu, T., Sun, S., Yan, S., Yang, L., Huang, Y., Jia, J., & Dou, T. (2021). Antibiotic resistance genes in bacteria: Occurrence, spread, and control. Journal of Basic Microbiology, 61(12), 1049–1070. https://doi.org/10.1002/jobm.202100201 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

57. Joseph, M.W., Moturi, W.N., & Ogendi, G.M. (2024). Assessment of veterinary antibiotic use and occurrence of veterinary antibiotics in livestock manure from farms in Rongai Sub-County, Kenya. Current World Environment, 19(2), 778–792. https://doi.org/10.12944/CWE.19.2.21 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

58. Kalli, M., Kontogiannatos, D., & Koi, A.M. (2025). Removal of antibiotic resistant bacteria and genes by conventional and nature-based municipal wastewater treatment systems. Environmental Processes. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40710-025-00779-x [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

59. Karwowska, E. (2024). Antibiotic Resistance in the Farming Environment. Applied Sciences, 14, 5776. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

60. Kelbrick, M., Hesse, E., & O’Brien, S. (2023). Cultivating antimicrobial resistance: how intensive agriculture ploughs the way for antibiotic resistance. Microbiology, 169(9), 001384. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

61. Kim, J., & Ahn, J. (2022). Emergence and spread of antibiotic-resistant foodborne pathogens from farm to table. Food Science and Biotechnology, 31, 1481–1499. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

62. Krzemiński, P., Markiewicz, Z., & Popowska, M. (2020). Entry routes of antibiotics and antimicrobial resistance in the environment. In M.Z. Hashmi (Ed.), Antibiotics and Antimicrobial Resistance Genes: Environmental Occurrence and Treatment Technologies (pp. 1–26). Springer, Cham. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

63. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-40422-2_1 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

64. La Rosa, M. C., Maugeri, A., Favara, G., La Mastra, C., Magnano San Lio, R., Barchitta, M., & Agodi, A. (2025). The Impact of Wastewater on Antimicrobial Resistance: A Scoping Review of Transmission Pathways and Contributing Factors. Antibiotics (Basel, Switzerland), 14(2), 131. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

65. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics14020131 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

66. Li, Z., Tang, J., Wang, X., Ma, X., Yuan, H., Gao, C., Guo, Q., Guo, X., Wan, J., & Dagot, C. (2025). The Environmental Lifecycle of Antibiotics and Resistance Genes: Transmission Mechanisms, Challenges, and Control Strategies. Microorganisms, 13(9), 2113. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

67. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms13092113 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

68. Liao, H., Li, X., Yang, Q., Bai, Y., Cui, P., Wen, C., Liu, C., Chen, Z., Tang, J., Che, J., Yu, Z., Geisen, S., Zhou, S., Friman, V.P., & Zhu, Y.G. (2021). Herbicide Selection Promotes Antibiotic Resistance in Soil Microbiomes. Molecular biology and evolution, 38(6), 2337–2350. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

69. https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msab029 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

70. Lin, D., Xu, J. Y., Wang, L., Du, S., & Zhu, D. (2024). Long-term application of organic fertilizer prompting the dispersal of antibiotic resistance genes and their health risks in the soil plastisphere. Environment international, 183, 108431. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2024.108431 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

71. Liu, B., Shen, Z., Zhou, Q., Ren, J., Wang, H., Zhang, D., & Pan, X. (2025). Antibiotic resistance genes in the animal manure-amended soil-plant system: Occurrence, transmission, bacterial hosts, and human health risks. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 303, 118890. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2025.118890 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

73. Liu, H., Zhang, Z., Li, X., Zhou, T., Wang, Z., Li, J., Li, Y., & Wang, Q. (2024). Temperature-phased anaerobic sludge digestion effectively removes antibiotic resistance genes in a full-scale wastewater treatment plant. The Science of the total environment, 924, 171555. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.171555 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

74. Macesic, N., Uhlemann, A.C., & Peleg, A.Y. (2025). Multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacterial infections. The Lancet, 405(10474), 257–272. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(24)02081-6 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

75. Marano, R.B., Gupta, C.L., Cozer, T., Jurkevitch, E., & Cytryn, E. (2021). Hidden resistome: Enrichment reveals the presence of clinically relevant antibiotic resistance determinants in treated wastewater-irrigated soils. Environmental Science & Technology, 55(10), 6814–6827. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

76. Markowicz, A., Bondarczuk, K., Cycoń, M., Sułowicz, S. (2021). Land application of sewage sludge: Response of soil microbial communities and potential spread of antibiotic resistance. Environmental Pollution, 271, 116317. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

77. Marutescu, L.G., Jaga, M., Postolache, C., Barbuceanu, F., Milita, N.M., Romascu, L.M., Schmitt, H., de Roda Husman, A.M., Sefeedpari, P., Glaeser, S., Kämpfer, P., Boerlin, P., Topp, E., Gradisteanu Pircalabioru, G., Chifiriuc, M.C., & Popa, M. (2022). Insights into the impact of manure on the environmental antibiotic residues and resistance pool. Frontiers in microbiology, 13, 965132. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

78. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2022.965132 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

79. Massaccesi, L., Albini, E., Massacci, F.R., Giusepponi, D., Paoletti, F., Sdogati, S., Morena, F., Agnelli, A., Leccese, A., Magistrali, C.F., & Galarini, R. (2024). Impact of Soil Fertilization with Pig Slurry on Antibiotic Residues and Resistance Genes: A Longitudinal Study. Antibiotics (Basel, Switzerland), 13(6), 486. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics13060486 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

80. Mbuthia, C.W., & Hoza, A.S. (2025). Wild birds as potential reservoirs of antimicrobial-resistant Escherichia coli: a systematic review. Frontiers in microbiology, 16, 1615826. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

81. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2025.1615826 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

82. Memesh, R., Yasir, M., Ledder, R.G., Zowawi, H., McBain, A.J., & Azhar, E.I. (2024). An update on the prevalence of colistin and carbapenem-resistant Gram-negative bacteria in aquaculture: an emerging threat to public health. Journal of applied microbiology, 135(1), lxad288. https://doi.org/10.1093/jambio/lxad288 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

83. Meradji, S., Basher, N.S., Sassi, A., Ibrahim, N.A., Idres, T., & Touati, A. (2025). The Role of Water as a Reservoir for Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria. Antibiotics (Basel, Switzerland), 14(8), 763. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

84. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics14080763 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

85. Mihrete, T.B., & Mihretu, F.B. (2025). Crop Diversification for Ensuring Sustainable Agriculture, Risk Management and Food Security. Global challenges (Hoboken, NJ), 9(2), 2400267. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

86. https://doi.org/10.1002/gch2.202400267 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

87. Mohammed, E.A.H., Kovács, B., Kuunya, R., Mustafa, E.O.A., Abbo, A.S.H., & Pál, K. (2025). Antibiotic Resistance in Aquaculture: Challenges, Trends Analysis, and Alternative Approaches. Antibiotics (Basel, Switzerland), 14(6), 598. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics14060598 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

88. Murray, L.M., Hayes, A., Snape, J., Kasprzyk-Hordern, B., Gaze, W.H., & Murray, A.K. (2024). Co-selection for antibiotic resistance by environmental contaminants. npj antimicrobials and resistance, 2(1), 9. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44259-024-00026-7 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

89. Mustapha, A., Allamin, I.A., Ismail, H.Y., Eze, U.A., Ibrahim, M.M., Bello, R.Y., & Faruq, A.U. (2021). Environmental contribution to antimicrobial resistance: A largely ignored global health issue. The Proceedings of the Nigerian Academy of Science, 14(2), 61–80. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

90. Ni, B., Xiao, L., Lin, D., Zhang, T. L., Zhang, Q., Liu, Y., Chen, Q., Zhu, D., Qian, H., Rillig, M.C., & Zhu, Y.G. (2025). Increasing pesticide diversity impairs soil microbial functions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 122(2), e2419917122. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2419917122 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

91. Nickodem, C.A., Tran, P.Q., Neeno-Eckwall, E., Congdon, A.G., Sanford, G.R., Silva, E.M., & Hite, J.L. (2025). Soil management strategies drive divergent impacts on pathogens and environmental resistomes. Scientific reports, 15(1), 43215. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-27157-9 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

92. Obijianya, C. C., Yakamercan, E., Karimi, M., Veluru, S., Simko, I., Eshkabilov, S., & Simsek, H. (2025). Agricultural Irrigation Using Treated Wastewater: Challenges and Opportunities. Water, 17 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

93. (14), 2083. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17142083 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

94. Olanrewaju, O.S., & Bezuidenhout, C.C. (2025). Harnessing beneficial bacteria to remediate antibiotic-polluted agricultural soils: integrating source diversity, bioavailability modulators, and ecological impacts. Frontiers in microbiology, 16, 1635233. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2025.1635233 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

95. Oliveira, M., Antunes, W., Mota, S., Madureira-Carvalho, Á., Dinis-Oliveira, R. J., & Dias da Silva, D. (2024). An overview of the recent advances in antimicrobial resistance. Microorganisms, 12(9), 1920. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms12091920 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

96. Ortega-Pozo, J.L., Alcalá, F.J., Poyatos, J.M., & Martín-Pascual, J. (2022). Wastewater reuse for irrigation agriculture in Morocco: Influence of regulation on feasible implementation. Land, 11(12), 2312 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

97. Ouoba, L. I. I., Treilles, M., Noumedem, R. N. G., Keck, N., Kiptiness, J. K., Diallo, A. A., Mouillé, B., Gourlaouen, M., Kimani, T., Obonyo, M., Niang, M., Dsani, E., Latronico, F., Garcia, A. D., Kabali, E., Song, J., & Shamsuddin, M. (2025). Building capacities in Sub-Saharan African countries for antimicrobial resistance surveillance in the food and agriculture sectors using the FAO ATLASS tool. Frontiers in veterinary science, 12, 1607013. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2025.1607013 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

98. Paidi MK, Satapute P, Haider MS, Udikeri S.S, Ramachandra YL. (2021). Mitigation of organophosphorus insecticides from environment: Residual detoxification by bioweapon catalytic scavengers. Environmental Research 200:111368. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

99. Pandey, S., Doo, H., Keum, G. B., Kim, E.S., Kwak, J., Ryu, S., Choi, Y., Kang, J., Kim, S., Lee, N.R., Oh, K.K., Lee, J.H., & Kim, H.B. (2024). Antibiotic resistance in livestock, environment and humans: One Health perspective. Journal of animal science and technology, 66(2), 266–278. https://doi.org/10.5187/jast.2023.e129 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

100. Patra, M., & Dubey, S. K. (2024). Understanding the spread of antibiotic resistance in vegetables cultivated with sewage sludge: Implications for food safety and human health. Environmental Systems Research, 13, 21. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40068-024-00347-6 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

101. Patra, M., Pandey, B., & Dubey, S. K. (2024). Prevalence of diverse antimicrobial resistance genes and bacteria in sewage treatment plant-derived sludge environment. FEMS microbes, 5, xtae004. https://doi.org/10.1093/femsmc/xtae004 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

102. Patyra, E., Osiński, Z., & Kwiatek, K. (2024). Residues of veterinary antibiotics in solid natural and organic fertilizers-method development and sample analysis. Environmental science and pollution research international, 10.1007/s11356-024-33956-w. Advance online publication. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

103. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-33956-w [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

104. Pinho, J.O., Plácido, A.I., Monteiro, A., Nogueira, R., Oliveira, P.A., Coelho, A.C., Figueiras, A., Roque, F., & Herdeiro, M.T. (2025). Evaluation of guidelines on antimicrobials use in food-producing animals: a systematic review. One health outlook, 7(1), 39. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42522-025-00160-w [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

105. Punch, R., Azani, R., Ellison, C., Majury, A., Hynds, P.D., Payne, S.J., & Brown, R.S. (2025). The surveillance of antimicrobial resistance in wastewater from a One Health perspective: A global scoping and temporal review (2014–2024). One Health, 21, 101139. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.onehlt.2025.101139 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

107. Roy, S., Dumont, M.G., Bradley, J.A., & Hernández, M. (2025). Microbial interactions between climate warming and antimicrobial resistance threaten soil carbon storage and global health. The ISME journal, 19(1), wraf220. https://doi.org/10.1093/ismejo/wraf220 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

108. Sassi, A., Basher, N.S., Kirat, H., Meradji, S., Ibrahim, N.A., Idres, T., & Touati, A. (2025). The Role of the Environment (Water, Air, Soil) in the Emergence and Dissemination of Antimicrobial Resistance: A One Health Perspective. Antibiotics (Basel, Switzerland), 14(8), 764. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics14080764 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

109. Shafiq, M., Obinwanne Okoye, C., Nazar, M., Ali Khattak, W., & Algammal, A.M. (2025). Ecological consequences of antimicrobial residues and bioactive chemicals on antimicrobial resistance in agroecosystems. Journal of advanced research, 74, 99–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jare.2024.10.013 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

110. Sharifmand, M., Sepehr, E., Rasouli-Sadaghiani, M., Asri-Rezaei, S., & Rengel, Z. (2024). Antibiotics pollutants in agricultural soil: Kinetic, sorption, and thermodynamic of ciprofloxacin. Heliyon, 10(18), e37035. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e37035 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

111. Shawver, S., Ishii, S., Strickland, M. S., & Badgley, B. (2024). Soil type and moisture content alter soil microbial responses to manure from cattle administered antibiotics. Environmental science and pollution research international, 31(18), 27259–27272. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-32903-z [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

112. Shawver, S., Wepking, C., Ishii, S., Strickland, M.S., & Badgley, B. (2021). Application of manure from cattle administered antibiotics has sustained multi-year impacts on soil resistome and microbial community structure. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 157, 108252. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2021.108252 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

114. Shen, L.Q., Lin, D., Ye, Y.Q., Liu, Y., Ni, B., Wu, D., Wang, L., & Zhu, D. (2025). Combined pesticide pollution enhances the dissemination of the phage-encoded antibiotic resistome in the soil under nitrogen deposition. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 122(40), e2516722122. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2516722122 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

115. Slobodiuk, S., Niven, C., Arthur, G., Thakur, S., Ercumen, A. (2021). Does Irrigation with Treated and Untreated Wastewater Increase Antimicrobial Resistance in Soil and Water: A Systematic Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18, 11046. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

116. Sorinolu, A.J., Tyagi, N., Kumar, A., Munir, M. (2021). Antibiotic resistance development and human health risks during wastewater reuse and biosolids application in agriculture. Chemosphere, 265, 129032. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

117. Ste Marie, J., Mays, C., Guo, B., Radniecki, T.S., Waite-Cusic, J., & Navab-Daneshmand, T. (2025). Longitudinal replicated metagenomic analysis of biosolids-amended soils reveals enrichment of ARGs, virulence factors, and ESKAPE pathogens. npj antimicrobials and resistance, 3(1), 96. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

118. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44259-025-00166-4 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

119. Tayeb, S. M., Alharbi, J. A., Alattas, B. B., Alotaibi, D. M., Althibaiti, N. M., Alharbi, J. F., SafirAldeen, A. E., Alqurashi, I. R., & Wali, S. M. (2025). Promising Future of Novel Beta-Lactam Antibiotics Against Bacterial Resistance. Drug design, development and therapy, 19, 9185–9197. https://doi.org/10.2147/DDDT.S551862 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

120. Totaro, V., Guido, G., Cotugno, S., De Vita, E., Asaduzzaman, M., Patti, G., Segala, F. V., Putoto, G., Frallonardo, L., Farkas, F. B., Lakatos, B., Veronese, N., Locantore, P., Di Gennaro, F., & Saracino, A. (2025). Antimicrobial Resistance in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Comprehensive Landscape Review. The American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene, 113(2), 253–263. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.25-0035 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

121. Trinchera, M., De Gaetano, S., Sole, E., Midiri, A., Silvestro, S., Mancuso, G., Catalano, T., & Biondo, C. (2025). Antimicrobials in livestock farming and resistance: Public health implications. Antibiotics, 14(6), 606. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics14060606 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

122. Trotta, V., Baaloudj, O., & Brienza, M. (2024). Risks associated with wastewater reuse in agriculture: Investigating the effects of contaminants in soil, plants, and insects. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 12, 1358842. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2024.1358842 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

123. Truchado, P., Gil, M. I., López, C., Garre, A., López-Aragón, R. F., Böhme, K., & Allende, A. (2021). New standards at European Union level on water reuse for agricultural irrigation: Are the Spanish wastewater treatment plants ready to produce and distribute reclaimed water within the minimum quality requirements? International journal of food microbiology, 356, 109352. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2021.109352 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

125. Van Laere, Y., Fraiture, M.A., Gobbo, A., De Keersmaecker, S.C.J., Marchal, K., Roosens, N.H.C., & Vanneste, K. (2025). Assessing the authenticity and purity of a commercial Bacillus thuringiensis bioinsecticide through whole genome sequencing and metagenomics approaches. Frontiers in microbiology, 16, 1532788. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2025.1532788 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

126. Wachino J. I. (2025). Horizontal Gene Transfer Systems for Spread of Antibiotic Resistance in Gram-Negative Bacteria. Microbiology and immunology, 69(7), 367–376. https://doi.org/10.1111/1348-0421.13222 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

127. Wallinga, D., Smit, L. A. M., Davis, M. F., Casey, J. A., & Nachman, K. E. (2022). A Review of the Effectiveness of Current US Policies on Antimicrobial Use in Meat and Poultry Production. Current environmental health reports, 9(2), 339–354. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40572-022-00351-x [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

128. Wang, G., Gao, X., Cai, Y., Li, G., Ma, R., & Yuan, J. (2024). Dynamics of antibiotic resistance genes during manure composting: Reduction in herbivores manure and accumulation in carnivores. Environment international, 190, 108900. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2024.108900 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

129. Wang, J., Wang, L., Zhu, L., Wang, J., & Xing, B. (2022). Antibiotic resistance in agricultural soils: Source, fate, mechanism and attenuation strategy. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 52(6), 847–889. https://doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2020.1835438 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

130. Wang, L., Gu, X., Hui, K., Yu, T., Yuan, Y., Chen, G., & Tan, W. (2025a). Interactions between antibiotic resistance genes and soil environmental factors: Coupling, antagonism, and synergism. Emerging Contaminants, 11(4), 100578. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emcon.2025.100578 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

131. Wang, Y., Liu, Q., Ran, H., Peng, P., Wang, Y., Peng, G., Wu, Y., & Wen, X. (2025b). Residual ciprofloxacin in chicken manure inhibits methane production in an anaerobic digestion system. Poultry science, 104(1), 104539. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psj.2024.104539 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

132. Wasan, H., Singh, D., Reeta, K.H., & Gupta, Y.K. (2023). Landscape of push funding in antibiotic research: Current status and way forward. Biology, 12(1), 101. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

133. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology12010101 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

134. Woolhouse M.E.J. (2024). One Health approaches to tackling antimicrobial resistance. Science in One Health, 3, 100082. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soh.2024.100082 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

135. World Health Organization. (2023). Antimicrobial resistance (Fact sheet). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

136. World Health Organization. (2024). Supporting countries with national action plan implementation and monitoring. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

137. Wu, R., Fang, J., Yang, Y., Liu, L., Liu, H., & Du, S. (2025). Transmission pathways and intrinsic mechanisms of antibiotic resistance genes in soil-plant systems: A review. Environmental Technology & Innovation, 37, 103985. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2024.103985 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

138. Xie, Y., Srivastava, I. M., Jing, F., Ma, C., Wu, X., Chen, Y., Du, Y., Low, X. C., Ping, Y., Pan, J., Gupta, A., Graves, N., & Mo, Y. (2025). One health perspective of antibiotic resistance in enterobacterales from Southeast Asia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Scientific reports, 16(1), 1694. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-31195-8 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

139. Yordanova, R., Platikanova, M., & Hristova, P. (2024). The use of antibiotics in food animals: A threat to human health. Journal of IMAB – Annual Proceeding (Scientific Papers), 30(2), 5495–5499. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

140. https://doi.org/10.5272/jimab.2024302 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

141. Zalewska, M., Bła˙zejewska, A., Czapko, A., Popowska, M. (2021). Antibiotics and antibiotic resistance genes in animal manure–consequences of its application in agriculture. Frontiers in Microbiology, 12, 610656. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

142. Zhang, X., Li, X., Wang, Y., Zhang, T., & Li, A. (2022). Occurrence and distribution of antibiotic resistance genes in reclaimed water irrigation systems and their potential risks. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 424, 127265. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

143. Zhang, Y., Cheng, D., Zhang, Y., Xie, J., Xiong, H., Wan, Y. (2021). Soil type shapes the antibiotic resistome profiles of long-term manured soil. Science of the Total Environment, 786, 147361. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

144. Zhang, Y., Hao, X., Thomas, B. W., McAllister, T.A., Workentine, M., Jin, L., Shi, X., & Alexander, T.W. (2023). Soil antibiotic resistance genes accumulate at different rates over four decades of manure application. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 443, 130136. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.130136 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

146. Zhao, B., Zhang, R., Jin, B., Yu, Z., Wen, W., Zhao, T., Quan, Y., & Zhou, J. (2025a). Sludge water: a potential pathway for the spread of antibiotic resistance and pathogenic bacteria from hospitals to the environment. Frontiers in microbiology, 16, 1492128. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2025.1492128 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

147. Zhao, P., Ma, M., Hu, Y., Wu, W., & Xiao, J. (2022). Comparison of international standards for irrigation with reclaimed water. Agricultural Water Management, 274, 107974. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

148. Zhao, Y., Li, L., Huang, Y. (2025b). Global soil antibiotic resistance genes are associated with increasing risk and connectivity to human resistome. Nature Communications, 16, 7141. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

149. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-61606-3 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

150. Zhou, G., Wang, Q., Wang, Y., Wen, X., Peng, H., Peng, R., Shi, Q., Xie, X., & Li, L. (2023). Outer Membrane Porins Contribute to Antimicrobial Resistance in Gram-Negative Bacteria. Microorganisms, 11(7), 1690. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11071690 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

• Quantitative Assessment of Serum C - Reactive Protein Levels among Smokers and Non Smokers
• Extraction and Characterization of Eco-Friendly Hair Dye from Agricultural Waste: A Study on Coconut Husk
• Intermittent Preventive Treatment among Pregnant Women Attending a Tertiary Healthcare Facility in Jos, North Central Nigeria: Adherence Patterns and Preliminary Assessment of Associated Factors
• Assessment Of Degradative Potentials Of Bacteria Isolated From Palm Oil-Polluted Site Using Spectrophotometric Method
• An Analysis of Machine and Deep Learning Insights on the Use of Artificial Intelligence in Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology