No Place for Play-Ful Learning in Higher Education: An Interdisciplinary Critical Evaluation (2015–2025)

From 2015 to 2025, many universities across OECD systems adopted playful or game-informed methods to lift engagement. Yet large-scale indicators question their contribution to adult mastery. Objective: To interrogate whether playful learning strengthens or dilutes adult development in higher education, with special attention to delayed retention, transfer, resilience, and labour-market readiness. Methods: We synthesise secondary data from the OECD’s second Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) and U.S. releases by NCES, triangulate employer surveys on graduate readiness, and integrate recent meta-analyses on gamification/game-based learning and cognitive load. Results: OECD and NCES report that adult literacy and numeracy largely declined or stagnated over the past decade, with U.S. averages lower in 2023 than in 2017, and a distribution shift toward lower proficiency levels. Employers in 2024–2025 increasingly report shortfalls in resilience, self-awareness, and communication among new graduates. Meta-analytically, playful/game-based designs raise near-term engagement but show modest, context-dependent effects on achievement and limited evidence of superior delayed retention or transfer. Conclusions: In adult higher education, play is not a pedagogical end. Absent robust evidence of medium, durable learning gains, overt game mechanics should remain constrained and cognitively disciplined. Implications: We propose an adult-fit standard: cap explicit game mechanics unless independent evaluations demonstrate ≥0.20 SD gains on delayed outcomes, interpreted with contemporary benchmarks for education effects and accompanied by cognitive-load safeguards and reflective debriefs that convert “safe failure” into real resilience. Supporting evidence and sources are current to December 2024–May 2025.

playful learning; higher education; adult development; cognitive load; grit resilience

1. Abrams, Z. (2022, October 1). Student mental health is in crisis: Campuses are rethinking their approach. Monitor on Psychology, 53(7). American Psychological Association. https://www.apa.org/monitor/2022/10/mental-health-campus-care [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Akridge, J., & Hummels, D. (2024, December 13). The skills gap: Don’t blame Gen Z, meet them where they are. Finding Equilibrium. https://findingequilibriumfuturehighered.substack.com/p/the-skills-gap-dont-blame-gen-z-meet [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. Alturki, U., & Aldraiweesh, A. (2023). Integrated TTF and self-determination theories in higher education: The role of actual use of the massive open online courses. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, Article 1108325. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1108325 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. Arnett, J. J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55(5), 469–480. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.5.469 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. Aristotle. (1998). Nicomachean ethics (D. Ross, Trans.; rev. ed.). Oxford University Press. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.264227 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Baltes, P. B., & Baltes, M. M. (1990). Psychological perspectives on successful aging: The model of selective optimization with compensation. In P. B. Baltes & M. M. Baltes (Eds.), Successful aging: Perspectives from the behavioral sciences (pp. 1–34). Cambridge University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511665684.003 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. Baugh, J. (2024). The importance of grit and resilience in education. Artemis Education. https://www.artemis-education.com/the-importance-of-grit-and-resilience-in-education/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. Becker, G. S. (1975). Human capital: A theoretical and empirical analysis, with special reference to education (2nd ed.). National Bureau of Economic Research. http://www.nber.org/chapters/c3730 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. Bryant & Stratton College. (2024, December 19). Adult learning theory and your college journey: Unlocking secrets to effective adult communication. https://www.bryantstratton.edu/blog/news/adult-learning-theory-and-the-college-journey-unlocking-secrets-to-effective-adult-communication/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. Chang, C.-C., Liang, C., Chou, P.-N., & Lin, G.-Y. (2017). Is game-based learning better in flow experience and various types of cognitive load than non-game-based learning? Perspectives from multimedia and media richness. Computers in Human Behavior, 71, 218–227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.01.031 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. Chen, CH., Shih, CC. & Law, V. (2020). The effects of competition in digital game-based learning (DGBL): a meta-analysis. Education Tech Research Dev 68, 1855–1873 . https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-020-09794-1 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. Cloke, H. (2024, June 14). What is Malcolm Knowles’ Adult Learning Theory? Growth Engineering. https://www.growthengineering.co.uk/adult-learning-theory/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Cuddeback, J. (2019, September 11). The difference between leisure and amusement. LifeCraft. https://life-craft.org/the-difference-between-leisure-and-amusement/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. Danner, L. K. (2016, July 4). Gamification: It’s in the game. E-International Relations. https://www.e-ir.info/2016/07/04/gamification-its-in-the-game/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. Dichev, C., Dicheva, D. (2017). Gamifying education: what is known, what is believed and what remains uncertain: a critical review. Int J Educ Technol High Educ 14, 9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-017-0042-5 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. Eisenberg, D., Lipson, S. K., Heinze, J., & Zhou, S. (2023). 2022-2023 Data Report: Healthy Minds Study. Healthy Minds Network. Retrieved from https://healthymindsnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/HMS_National-Report-2022-2023_full.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. Fischer, H., Pippig, M., Arnold, M., Farrand, Y., Leducq, S., Köhler, T., Letonja, M., Mertens, L., Müller, J., Slingerland, R., Urgacz, P., & Verhagen, R. (2024). Ideation, business modelling and leadership by gamification – Using digital playful learning in next generation entrepreneurship. In INTED2024 Proceedings (18th International Technology, Education and Development Conference, pp. 2697–2703). IATED. https://doi.org/10.21125/inted.2024.0742 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. George, T. (2025, January 14). Mixed methods research: Definition, guide & examples. Scribbr. https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/mixed-methods-research/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. Gill, H. (2018, June 7). Is gamification and game-based learning the future of education? Leaderonomics. https://www.leaderonomics.com/articles/leadership/gamification-education-future [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. Gkintoni, E., Antonopoulou, H., Sortwell, A., & Halkiopoulos, C. (2025). Challenging Cognitive Load Theory: The Role of Educational Neuroscience and Artificial Intelligence in Redefining Learning Efficacy. Brain sciences, 15(2), 203. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15020203 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. Han, B.-C. (2020). The disappearance of rituals: A topological study of systems of power (D. Kwon, Trans.). Polity Press. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.62141/okh.v8i1.204 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

22. Han, Y., & Xu, Z. (2024). Fostering college students’ mental well-being: The impact of social networking site utilization on emotion management and regulation. BMC Psychology, 12, 681. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-02186-7 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

23. Hattie, J., & Hamilton, A. (2020). Real Gold vs. Fool’s Gold: The VISIBLE LEARNING™ methodology for finding what works best in education (Gold Paper). Corwin Press. https://www.visiblelearning.com/sites/default/files/Real%20Gold%20vs.%20Fools%20Gold_FINAL_app.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

24. Healthy Minds Network. (2023). 2022–2023 data report: The Healthy Minds Study. https://healthymindsnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/HMS_National-Report-2022-2023_full.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

25. Healthy Minds Network. (2025). 2023–2024 Healthy Minds Study national data report. University of Michigan. https://healthymindsnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/2023-2024-HMS-National-Data-Report_041525.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

26. Holflod, K. (2022). Voices of playful learning: Experimental, affective and relational perspectives across social education and teacher education. Journal of Play in Adulthood. Retrieved from https://www.journalofplayinadulthood.org.uk/article/1007/galley/763/view/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

27. Intelligent. (2024, September 13). 1 in 6 companies are hesitant to hire recent college graduates. Intelligent. https://www.intelligent.com/1-in-6-companies-are-hesitant-to-hire-recent-college-graduates/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

28. Institute of Student Employers (ISE). (2025, May 7). Employer barometer report: Graduate resilience and skills gaps 2024. https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/almost-half-employers-think-graduates-lack-resilience [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

29. Institute of Student Employers. (2025, May 8). Employers concerned student use of AI misrepresents skills. https://ise.org.uk/knowledge/insights/416/employers concerned_student_use_of_ai misrepresents skills/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

30. James, A. (2019). Making a Case for the Playful University. In: James, A., Nerantzi, C. (eds) The Power of Play in Higher Education. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95780-7_1 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

31. Knowles, M. S. (1990). The adult learner: A neglected species (4th ed.). Gulf Publishing. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED084368 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

32. Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Prentice-Hall. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235701029_Experiential Learning_Experience As The_Source_Of_Learning_And_Development [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

33. Kraft, M. A. (2020). Interpreting Effect Sizes of Education Interventions. Educational Researcher, 49(4), 241-253. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X20912798 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

34. Langerock, N., Oberauer, K., Throm, E. V., & Vergauwe, E. (2025). The cognitive load effect in working memory: Refreshing the empirical landscape, removing outdated explanations. Journal of Memory and Language, 140, 104558. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2024.104558 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

35. Lauricella, S., & Edmunds, T. K. (2022). Ludic pedagogy online: Fun, play, playfulness, and positivity. In Ludic Pedagogy (Chapter 20). https://doi.org/10.51357/HGJK8068 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

36. Lee, J., Kim, D. (2025). From awareness to empowerment: self-determination theory-informed learning analytics dashboards to enhance student engagement in asynchronous online courses. J Comput High Educ 37, 1078–1118. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12528-024-09416-2 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

37. LSA Learning & Teaching Technology Consultants. (2025, February 20). Playful Professors: Integrating Play into the College Classroom. University of Michigan LSA—Technology Services. https://lsa.umich.edu/technology-services/news-events/all-news/teaching-tip-of-the-week/playful-professors-integrating-play-into-the-college-classroom.html [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

38. Maden, J. (2022, November). Aristotle on why leisure defines us more than work. Philosophy Break. https://philosophybreak.com/articles/aristotle-on-why-leisure-defines-us-more-than-work/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

39. Mangeol, P. (2024). Coronavirus is changing the labour market – how can higher education respond? OECD Education and Skills Today. https://oecdedutoday.com/coronavirus-changing-labour-market-higher-education/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

40. Michaelides, S. (2025, February 4). Employers don’t want to hire new grads — can young professionals turn the tide in 2025? Allwork.Space. https://allwork.space/2025/02/employers-dont-want-to-hire-new-grads-can-young-professionals-turn-the-tide-in-2025/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

41. National Association of Colleges and Employers (NACE). (2023). Job outlook 2024. https://www.naceweb.org/docs/default-source/default-document-library/2023/publication/research-report/2024-nace-job-outlook.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

42. National Association of Colleges and Employers. (2024, December 9). What are employers looking for when reviewing college students’ résumés? https://naceweb.org/talent-acquisition/candidate-selection/what-are-employers-looking-for-when-reviewing-college-students-resumes [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

43. National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE). (2023, August 15). NSSE 2023 institutional results released. Evidence-Based Improvement in Higher Education. https://nsse.indiana.edu/news-events/_news/2023/2023-08-11.html [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

44. Nesbitt, K., Blinkoff, E., Hofkens, T., Scott, M., Burchinal, M., Bustamante, A. S., Farran, D. C., Golinkoff, R. M., Kessler, S., de Kruif, R., Leslie, D., Levine, S., Owen, M., Pianta, R., Vandell, D. L., & Hirsh-Pasek, K. (2025, May 23). Teaching in the way human brains learn: First results from Active Playful Learning. Brookings. https://www.brookings.edu/articles/teaching-in-the-way-human-brains-learn/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

45. Nørgård, R. T., Toft-Nielsen, C., & Whitton, N. (2017). Playful learning in higher education: developing a signature pedagogy. International Journal of Play, 6(3), 272–282. https://doi.org/10.1080/21594937.2017.1382997 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

46. OECD (2024), Do Adults Have the Skills They Need to Thrive in a Changing World?: Survey of Adult Skills 2023, OECD Skills Studies, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/b263dc5d-en. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

47. OECD. (2024b). Adult skills in literacy and numeracy declining or stagnating in most OECD countries. OECD. https://www.oecd.org/en/about/news/press-releases/2024/12/adult-skills-in-literacy-and-numeracy-declining-or-stagnating-in-most-oecd-countries.html [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

48. OECD (2025), Trends Shaping Education 2025, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/ee6587fd-en. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

49. Office for Students. (2023). National Student Survey 2023: Quality report. officeforstudents.org.uk/media/0d546ac2-2172-46c4-8fe1-2ee292729131/national-student-survey-2023-quality-report_15aug2023.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

50. Office for Students. (2023, August 10). National Student Survey 2023 results. https://www.officeforstudents.org.uk/news-blog-and-events/press-and-media/over-339-000-students-cast-their-views-in-national-student-survey/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

51. ONET OnLine. (2025). Stress tolerance (Work Styles). ONET OnLine. https://www.onetonline.org/find/descriptor/result/1.C.4.b [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

52. Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., ... & Moher, D. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. PLOS Medicine, 18(3), e1003583. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003583 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

53. Pastor David. (2025, June 11). Ecclesiastes 7:4 meaning & explanation (with related verses). Christianity Path. https://christianitypath.com/ecclesiastes-7-4/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

54. Pieper, J. (1952). Leisure: The basis of culture (A. Dru, Trans.). Pantheon. https://ballyheaparish.com/resources/Leisure-The-Basis-of-Culture-copy-2.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

55. Postman, N. (1985). Amusing ourselves to death: Public discourse in the age of show business. Viking. https://interesi.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/amusing.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

56. Ratinho, E., & Martins, C. (2023). The role of gamified learning strategies in student's motivation in high school and higher education: A systematic review. Heliyon, 9(8), e19033. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e19033 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

57. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 60, 101860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

58. Sangwa, S., & Mutabazi, P. (2025). Mission-Driven Learning Theory: Ordering Knowledge and Competence to Life Mission. Open Journal of Transformative Education & LifeLong Learning, 2(1). https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17237330 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

59. Sato, S., & Ueda, Y. (2025). First-year students’ new initiative of student-centered and research-based learning on global problem-solving. In Proceedings of the 2025 JSEE Annual Conference, International Session (W-03). Japanese Society for Engineering Education. https://doi.org/10.20549/jseeen.2025.0_10 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

60. SHIFT Learning. (2025). Managing cognitive load is a delicate act of balance. SHIFT eLearning. https://www.shiftelearning.com/blog/design-elearning-to-protect-the-learner-from-overload [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

61. Skovbjerg, H. M., & Jensen, J. B. (2024). Could a playful approach to teaching be a path to resonant connections? Experiences from teacher education in Denmark. Frontiers in Education, 9, Article 1237116. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2024.1237116 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

62. Skovbjerg, H. M., Hijkoop, V. A., & Bekker, M. M. (2024). Playful learning: Linking play properties to learning designs - a higher education scoping review. Journal of Play in Adulthood, 6(1), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.5920/jpa.1329 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

63. Skulmowski, A., & Xu, K. M. (2022). Understanding cognitive load in digital and online learning: A new perspective on extraneous cognitive load. Educational Psychology Review, 34(1), 171–196. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-021-09624-7 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

64. Subhash, S., & Cudney, E. A. (2018). Gamified learning in higher education: A systematic review of the literature. Computers in Human Behavior, 87, 192–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.05.028 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

65. Tanis, D. J. (2012). Exploring play/playfulness and learning in the adult and higher education classroom (Doctoral dissertation, The Pennsylvania State University). ProQuest LLC. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED554701 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

66. Taylor, T. A. H., et al. (2022). Expanding the scope of extraneous cognitive load in higher education. Medical Science Educator, 32, 911–919. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9263515/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

67. Thomas, R. L. (1993). 1 Cor 13:11 revisited: An exegetical update. The Master's Seminary Journal, 4(2), 187-201. https://tms.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/tmsj4g.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

68. Times Higher Education. (2022, November 23). Recruiters focus on graduate skills – survey. https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/recruiters-graduate-skills-more-vital-university-reputation [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

69. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2024). Highlights of the 2023 U.S. PIAAC results web report (NCES 2024-202). Washington, DC. https://nces.ed.gov/surveys/piaac/2023/national_results.asp [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

70. U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration (US-ETA). (2025, July 1). Browse by work styles. O*NET OnLine. https://www.onetonline.org/find/descriptor/browse/1.C. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

71. U-senyang, S. (2024). Experiential learning in action: Analyzing outcomes and educational implications. Journal of Education and Learning Reviews, 1(2), 13–28. https://doi.org/10.60027/jelr.2024.771 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

72. Wells, S. (2018, June 13). Playful learning – notes from the reading group. Education works. https://educationworks.blogs.bristol.ac.uk/2018/06/playful-learning/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

73. Wicen, S. (2022, December 12). Weaving together mixed methods. Library Research Service. https://www.lrs.org/2022/12/12/weaving-together-mixed-methods/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

74. Whitton, N. (2010). Game Engagement Theory and Adult Learning. Simulation & Gaming, 42(5), 596-609. https://doi.org/10.1177/1046878110378587 (Original work published 2011) [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

75. Whitton, N. J. (2018). Playful learning: Tools, techniques, and tactics. Research in Learning Technology, 26, Article 2035. https://doi.org/10.25304/rlt.v26.2035 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

76. Whitton, N., & Langan, M. (2018). Fun and games in higher education: an analysis of UK student perspectives. Teaching in Higher Education, 24(8), 1000–1013. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2018.1541885 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

77. World Economic Forum. (2023). The Future of Jobs Report 2023. https://www.weforum.org/publications/the-future-of-jobs-report-2023/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

78. Wu, X.-Y. (2024). Exploring the effects of digital technology on deep learning: A meta-analysis. Education and Information Technologies, 29(1), 425-458. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-023-12307-1 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

• Administrative Support as a Predictor of Teacher Retention and Organizational Commitment: A Case Study of Junior High Teachers
• Unmasking Colonial Legacies in Zambian Education: A Philosophical and Historical Critique of the Secondary School Curriculum
• Improving Students' Collaboration and Communication Skills through Project-Based Digital Learning in Plantation and Herbal
• Public Primary School Teacher Preparedness on CBC Adoption in Township Ward, Garissa County, Kenya