The Practice and Socio-Cultural Effects of Female Genital Mutilation Among Mature Females in Akoko, Ondo State

This study explores the socio-cultural dynamics sustaining Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) in Akoko North East, Akoko North West, Akoko South East, and Akoko South West Local Government Areas of Ondo State, Nigeria. Despite intensified global and national campaigns against FGM, the practice remains widespread due to entrenched cultural beliefs, social norms, and generational transmission. Employing a descriptive survey design, 400 questionnaires were distributed, yielding 358 valid responses from women of reproductive age, community elders, religious leaders, and health professionals. The instrument covered demographics, awareness, cultural attitudes, personal experiences, health consequences, and policy responses. Findings show that 95.5% of participants were aware of FGM and 82.1% acknowledged its health risks, yet the practice endures, driven by moral expectations, social conformity, and symbolic associations with womanhood and marital eligibility. Over half of the respondents had undergone FGM, typically before age ten, with parental decision-making playing a central role. Cultural pressure and communal expectations emerged as dominant motivators, even among those personally opposed to the practice. Encouragingly, resistance is growing, especially among educated women 87.2% endorsed education-based interventions and 79.3% expressed willingness to engage in community dialogues to end FGM. The study applies Social Norms Theory, Symbolic Interactionism, the Health Belief Model, and Ecological Systems Theory to explain how cultural symbols, perceived expectations, and structural factors shape individual behavior. It concludes that legal prohibitions alone are inadequate; instead, comprehensive strategies involving education, community engagement, and mental health support are vital. Key recommendations include integrating FGM education into school curricula, empowering religious and traditional leaders as change agents, enhancing legal enforcement, and offering trauma-informed care for survivors.

Female Genital Mutilation, cultural norms, social conformity

1. Abafi, D. (2023). FGM in Nigeria: An ecological framework review. ResearchGate. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Adedeji, K. (2025). Community-based interventions against female genital mutilation in Ondo State: Inclusive programming for parents and leaders. Journal of Social Development Studies, 14(2), 55–70. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. Adegoke, A. (2005). Cultural practices and women’s health in Nigeria. Ibadan: Spectrum Books. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. Asekun-Olarinmoye, E. O., Amusan, O. A., & Asekun-Olarinmoye, I. O. (2018). Cultural beliefs and female genital mutilation in Nigeria: Implications for reproductive health. African Journal of Reproductive Health, 22(3), 120–129. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Bicchieri, C. (2018). Norms in the wild: How to diagnose, measure, and change social norms. Oxford University Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. Bolorunduro, O. (2021). Sexual dysfunction and marital dissatisfaction among survivors of female genital mutilation in Nigeria. Journal of Women’s Health Studies, 15(2), 45–58. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. Bolorunduro, O. (2021). Women as custodians of tradition: The role of mature women in perpetuating female genital mutilation in Nigeria. African Journal of Gender and Culture Studies, 11(3), 102–118. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Harvard University Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. CIRDDOC. (2020). Report on community-based strategies for ending female genital mutilation in Nigeria. Enugu: Civil Resource Development and Documentation Centre. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. Dahunsi, A., & Mohammed, S. (2022). Generational transmission and cultural enforcement of female genital mutilation in rural Nigeria. International Journal of Sociology and Anthropology, 10(4), 88–99. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. Dateline Health Africa. (2025). Myths and misconceptions sustaining female genital mutilation in Nigeria. Dateline Health Africa Report, 7(1), 15–22. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Ibrahim, A., & Adelakun, O. (2021). Psychosocial impact of female genital mutilation in Southwestern Nigeria. Journal of Women’s Studies in Africa, 13(2), 77–91. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. Ikonne, C. (2023). Grassroots strategies for eradicating female genital mutilation in Nigeria: A culturally specific approach. International Journal of Community Development, 9(1), 44–59. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. Imo, C. K., Olorunfemi, O. D., & Adeyemi, A. (2019). Cultural and gender norms influencing female genital mutilation in rural Ondo communities. International Journal of Sociology and Anthropology, 11(5), 77–89. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. Iroriteraye-Adjekpovu, O. (2024). Female genital mutilation in Southern Nigeria: Symbolism, identity, and social belonging. Nigerian Journal of Cultural Studies, 15(1), 33–49. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. National Population Commission (NPC) [Nigeria], & ICF. (2019). Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey 2018. Abuja, Nigeria, and Rockville, Maryland, USA: NPC and ICF. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. Nwali, C., & Agboeze, J. (2023). Peer pressure and socio-cultural motivations for female genital mutilation in Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Social Sciences, 9(2), 134–147. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. Oluchi Anita Chukwuka Ogbu (2018). Female genital mutilation in Nigeria: A brief sociological review. Journal of Public Management, 6(1), 1–5. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. Olufunke, A. (2023). Female genital mutilation and cultural beliefs among Yoruba women in Nigeria. African Journal of Gender and Culture Studies, 12(1), 88–104. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. Olutosin, A. (2021). Traditional birth attendants and the persistence of female genital mutilation in Ondo State. Nigerian Journal of Public Health, 9(3), 112–125. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

22. Oyefara, J. L. (2014). Socio-cultural dimensions and attitudes of women and community stakeholders towards continuation of female genital mutilation in Lagos Metropolis, Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Sociology and Anthropology, 12(1), 45–62. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

23. Tomori, F. (2021). Myths and misconceptions about female genital mutilation in rural Nigeria: Implications for awareness campaigns. International Journal of Social Science Research, 7(4), 210–225. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

24. UNICEF, & Balm in Gilead Foundation for Sustainable Development (BIGIF). (2025). Community dialogue and advocacy strategies for ending female genital mutilation in Ondo State. Abuja: UNICEF Nigeria. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

25. UNICEF. (2005). Female genital mutilation/cutting: A statistical exploration. New York: UNICEF. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

26. World Health Organization. (1996). Female genital mutilation: Report of a WHO technical working group. Geneva: WHO. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

27. World Health Organization. (2020). Female genital mutilation: Key facts. Geneva: WHO. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

• The Impact of Ownership Structure on Dividend Payout Policy of Listed Plantation Companies in Sri Lanka
• Urban Sustainability in North-East India: A Study through the lens of NER-SDG index
• Performance Assessment of Predictive Forecasting Techniques for Enhancing Hospital Supply Chain Efficiency in Healthcare Logistics
• The Fractured Self in Julian Barnes' Postmodern Fiction: Identity Crisis and Deflation in Metroland and the Sense of an Ending
• Impact of Flood on the Employment, Labour Productivity and Migration of Agricultural Labour in North Bihar