Challenges and Opportunities for Gender-Inclusive Public Transport Policies in Southeast Asian Economies

Public transportation systems in Southeast Asia are vital for economic growth and social equity; however, they often fail to address the unique needs of women and marginalised genders. This results in safety concerns, accessibility barriers, and restricted mobility, limiting their participation in education, employment, and public life. This study explores the challenges and opportunities for implementing gender-inclusive public transport policies in Southeast Asian economies, focusing on Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam. This study uses existing literature, case studies, and policy frameworks to identify the main socio-cultural, economic, and infrastructure barriers. These include harassment, poor infrastructure, and a lack of gender-separated data. It also highlights opportunities for innovation, including gender-responsive urban planning, technological advancements such as safety apps and real-time tracking, and community engagement initiatives. Policy reforms, such as stricter anti-harassment laws and subsidies for women’s transportation, are critical for fostering inclusivity. Public-private partnerships and awareness campaigns further enhance the potential for equitable transportation systems. These findings underscore the need for collaborative efforts among governments, the private sector, and civil society to create safe, accessible, and sustainable transportation systems. By addressing the unique mobility needs of women and marginalised genders, Southeast Asia can promote social equity, economic development, and inclusive urbanisation in the region. This study contributes to the growing discourse on gender-inclusive transportation by offering actionable insights for policymakers and stakeholders in the region.

Transportation systems, Southeast Asia

1. Action Aid. (2024). Metro Manila transport safety survey 2024. Action Aid Philippines [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Amraeni, Y., Kamso, S., Prasetyo, S. B., & Ahmad, M. (2020). Women's involvement in decision making for unmet need for contraception in Indonesia. Enfermeria clinica, 30, 198-201. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. Amrapala, C., & Choocharukul, K. (2019). Perceived service quality and commuter segmentation of informal public transport service in Bangkok, Thailand. Engineering Journal, 23(6), 1-18. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. ASEAN Gender Policy Institute. (2024). Gender and mobility in Southeast Asia: Addressing public transport disparities. ASEAN Publications. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. Asian Development Bank (ADB). (2024). AI for safer public transport: Southeast Asia case studies. ADB Briefs. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Bęczkowska, S. A., & Zysk, Z. (2021). Safety of people with special needs in public transport. Sustainability, 13(19), 10733. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. Biana, H. T., Jabar, M., Yabut, H., & Domingo, R. (2023). Modified feminist self-defense: violence against women in transit in Metro Manila. Journal of Transportation Security, 16(1), 11. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. Borker, G. (2022). Constraints to women’s use of public transport in developing countries, part ii: Safety. Global Indicators Briefs, 2(10). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. Borker, G. (2022). Safety over mobility? How women navigate public transport in Manila. World Development, 149, 105689. https://doi.org/xxxx [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. Borker, G. (2024). Community-led transport solutions: Female-driven jeepneys in the Philippines. Journal of Urban Mobility, 5, 100023 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. Campisi, T., Georgiadis, G., & Basbas, S. (2022, July). Developing cities for citizens: supporting gender equity for successful and sustainable urban mobility. In International Conference on Computational Science and Its Applications (pp. 410-422). Cham: Springer International Publishing. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. Ceccato, V., & Loukaitou-Sideris, A. (2022). Fear of sexual harassment and its impact on safety perceptions in transit environments: a global perspective. Violence against women, 28(1), 26-48. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Cervero, R. (2014). Transport infrastructure and the environment in the Global South: sustainable mobility and urbanism. Journal of Regional and City Planning, 25(3), 174-191. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. Cervero, R., Guerra, E., Al, S., Cervero, R., Guerra, E., & Al, S. (2017). The Global South. Beyond Mobility: Planning Cities for People and Places, 167-192. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. Chalermpong, S., & Ratanawaraha, A. (2020). Bangkok, Thailand. In Parking (pp. 207-227). Elsevier. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. Chant, S. (2013). Cities through a “gender lens”: a golden “urban age” for women in the global South?. Environment and urbanization, 25(1), 9-29. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. Department of Transportation (DOTR). (2025). AI-enabled safety systems in Philippine MRTs [Policy]. Government of the Philippines [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. Gekoski, A., Gray, J. M., Horvath, M. A., Edwards, S., Emirali, A., & Adler, J. R. (2015). What works’ in reducing sexual harassment and sexual offences on public transport nationally and internationally: A rapid evidence assessment. London: British Transport Police and Department for Transport. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. Gekoski, A., et al. (2023). Mobility deprivation: Gendered barriers in urban transport systems. Urban Mobility Research Journal, 12(3), 45-67. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. Han, C. K., & Resurreccion, B. P. (2008). Struggling alone: Gender, migration and domestic violence among Thai women in Bangkok. Asian journal of women's studies, 14(1), 34-71. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. Han, C. K., & Resurreccion, B. P. (2008). Struggling alone: Gender, migration and domestic violence among Thai women in Bangkok. Asian journal of women's studies, 14(1), 34-71. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

22. Hanson, S. (2010). Gender and mobility: new approaches for informing sustainability. Gender, Place & Culture, 17(1), 5-23. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

23. Harumain, Y. A. S., McDonagh, D., Woodcock, A., Nordin, N. A., & Faiz, K. (2020). Gender transport inequalities in Malaysia and Pakistan: barriers to female mobility. In Contentious Cities (pp. 71-83). Routledge. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

24. Harumain, Y. A. S., Nordin, N. A., Zaid, S. M., Goh, H. C., Woodcock, A., Mcdonagh, D., ... & Faiz, K. (2020). Understanding factors of using public transportation among women in Kuala Lumpur. Jurnal Pengembangan Kota, 8(2), 109-115. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

25. Hidayati, I., Tan, W., & Yamu, C. (2020). How gender differences and perceptions of safety shape urban mobility in Southeast Asia. Transportation research part F: traffic psychology and behaviour, 73, 155-173. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

26. Huu, D. N., & Ngoc, V. N. (2021). Analysis study of current transportation status in Vietnam’s urban traffic and the transition to electric two-wheelers mobility. Sustainability, 13(10), 5577. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

27. Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). (2024). Jakarta urban transport safety survey: Gender disparities. JICA Research Institute. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

28. Jabar, M. A., Yabut, H. J., Biana, H. T., & Domingo, R. (2024). Psychological empowerment among women commuters in Metro Manila, Philippines: perceived transit risks, attitudes, and self-protective strategies. Journal of Transportation Security, 17(1), 17. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

29. Joseph, M. G. C., Kirchhoff, G. F., & Barkhuizen, J. (2014). Asian passengers' safety study: the problem of sexual molestation of women on trains and buses in Chennai, India. Acta Criminologica: African Journal of Criminology & Victimology, 27(1), 57-74. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

30. Joshi, S., Roy, S., Mowri, S., & Bailey, A. (2022). Devising gender-responsive transport policies in South Asia. Gender & Development, 30(1-2), 59-76. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

31. Joshi, S., Roy, S., Mowri, S., & Bailey, A. (2022). Devising gender-responsive transport policies in South Asia. Gender & Development, 30(1-2), 59-76. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

32. Lim, C. T. N. (2022). Attributes of Working Children in the Philippines. Journal of Social and Political Sciences, 5(1). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

33. Limthongsakul, S., Nitivattananon, V., & Arifwidodo, S. D. (2017). Localized flooding and autonomous adaptation in peri-urban Bangkok. Environment and Urbanization, 29(1), 51-68. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

34. Loukaitou-Sideris, A. (2014). Fear and safety in transit environments from the women’s perspective. Security journal, 27, 242-256. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

35. Macedo, M., Lotero, L., Cardillo, A., Menezes, R., & Barbosa, H. (2022). Differences in the spatial landscape of urban mobility: gender and socioeconomic perspectives. Plos one, 17(3), e0260874. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

36. Macedo, M., Lotero, L., Cardillo, A., Menezes, R., & Barbosa, H. (2022). Differences in the spatial landscape of urban mobility: gender and socioeconomic perspectives. Plos one, 17(3), e0260874. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

37. Mateo-Babiano, I. (2016). Indigeneity of transport in developing cities. International Planning Studies, 21(2), 132-147. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

38. Mateo-Babiano, I., Utomo, D. M., & Indonesia, G. M. (2021). College Student Transit Safety in two Indonesian cities. In Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies (Vol. 13). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

39. Mijares, A. C., Regmi, M. B., & Yai, T. (2014). Enhancing the sustainability and inclusiveness of the Metro Manila’s urban transportation systems: Proposed fare and policy reforms. Transport and Communications Bulletin for Asia and the Pacific, 84(2), 28-40. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

40. Mohanty, M. (2020). Globalization and Cities. Sustainable Cities and Communities, 204-215. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

41. Ng, W., & Acker, A. (2024). Rethinking public transport: Gendered mobility patterns and safety concerns in Southeast Asia. Journal of Transport and Society, 18(2), 112-134. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

42. Nguyen, T. C., Ha, T. T., & Nguyen, M. H. (2025). Towards gender equity in public transportation: Empirical evidence of sexual harassment in the Hanoi bus, Vietnam. Transportation Research Procedia, 85, 164-169. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

43. Nguyen, T. C., Ha, T. T., & Nguyen, M. H. (2025). Towards gender equity in public transportation: Empirical evidence of sexual harassment in the Hanoi bus, Vietnam. Transportation Research Procedia, 85, 164-169. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

44. Noomnual, S., & Shendell, D. G. (2017). Risk of adult street vendor exposure to traffic-related air pollution in Bangkok, Thailand. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 23(2), 340-349. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

45. Noor, S., & Iamtrakul, P. (2023). Women's access to urban public transport: Toward addressing policy constraints in combating sexual harassment. Transport policy, 137, 14-22. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

46. Padawangi, R. (2022). Urban development in southeast Asia. Cambridge University Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

47. Panda, L. P., Rath, K. C., Rao, N. J., & Rao, A. S. (2024). Enhancing Organizational Ecosystems Through Gender Equity: Addressing Challenges and Embracing Opportunities. In Effective Technology for Gender Equity in Business and Organizations (pp. 195-226). IGI Global. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

48. Pindarwati, A., & Wijayanto, A. W. (2015). Measuring performance level of smart transportation system in big cities of Indonesia comparative study: Jakarta, Bandung, Medan, Surabaya, and Makassar. In 2015 International Conference on Information Technology Systems and Innovation (ICITSI) (pp. 1-6). IEEE. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

49. Pongprasert, P., & Kubota, H. (2019). TOD residents’ attitudes toward walking to transit station: A case study of transit-oriented developments (TODs) in Bangkok, Thailand. Journal of modern transportation, 27, 39-51. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

50. Pongutta, S., Kantamaturapoj, K., Phakdeesettakun, K., & Phonsuk, P. (2021). The social impact of the COVID-19 outbreak on urban slums and the response of civil society organisations: A case study in Bangkok, Thailand. Heliyon, 7(5). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

51. Prasertsubpakij, D., & Nitivattananon, V. (2012). Evaluating accessibility to Bangkok Metro Systems using multi-dimensional criteria across user groups. IATSS research, 36(1), 56-65. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

52. Rashid, S., Wahab, M., & Rani, W. N. M. W. M. (2019). Designing safe street for women. International Journal of Recent Technology and Engineering, 8(2), 118-122. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

53. Sil, A., Chowdhury, S., & Thoreau, R. (2023). Moving towards an inclusive public transport system for women in the South and Southeast Asian region. Transport reviews, 43(6), 1144-1164. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

54. Sil, A., Chowdhury, S., & Thoreau, R. (2023). Moving towards an inclusive public transport system for women in the South and Southeast Asian region. Transport reviews, 43(6), 1144-1164. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

55. Singh, Y. J. (2020). Is smart mobility also gender-smart?. Journal of Gender Studies, 29(7), 832-846. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

56. Tan, L., & Lee, H. (2025). AI and gender-responsive urban mobility: Lessons from Kuala Lumpur. Asian Development Bank. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

57. Tarife, P. M. (2017). Female-only platforms in the ride-sharing economy: Discriminatory or necessary. Rutgers UL Rev., 70, 295. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

58. Toan, T. D., & Van Dong, D. (2019). Integrated transport planning for sustainable urban development–Singapore’approach and lessons for Vietnam. In CIGOS 2019, Innovation for Sustainable Infrastructure: Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Geotechnics, Civil Engineering Works and Structures (pp. 947-952). Singapore: Springer Singapore. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

59. Truong, V. D. (2017). Government-led macro-social marketing programs in Vietnam: Outcomes, challenges, and implications. Journal of Macromarketing, 37(4), 409-425. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

60. Turner, J. (2013). Urban mass transit and social sustainability in Jakarta, Indonesia. Global Report on Human Settlements. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

61. UN Women. (2025). Gender audits of TransJakarta: A roadmap for inclusive transport. United Nations [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

62. Uteng, T. P. (2012). Gender and mobility in the developing world. Washington, DC: World Bank. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

63. Van, H. T., Choocharukul, K., & Fujii, S. (2014). The effect of attitudes toward cars and public transportation on behavioral intention in commuting mode choice—A comparison across six Asian countries. Transportation research part A: policy and practice, 69, 36-44. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

64. Wadud, Z. (2020). The effects of e-ridehailing on motorcycle ownership in an emerging-country megacity. Transportation research part A: policy and practice, 137, 301-312. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

65. Wright, T. (2023). The role of the state in promoting gender equality in public transport employment: evidence from the Global South. In Handbook on Gender and Public Sector Employment (pp. 50-63). Edward Elgar Publishing. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

66. World Bank. (2024). Gender-based violence and public transport in Southeast Asia [Report]. World Bank Group. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

67. Yeoh, B. (2016). Migration and gender politics in Southeast Asia. Migration, Mobility, & Displacement, 2(1). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

• Smart Iot Device for Weather And Health
• Merlarchive: A Web-Based Academic Hub for UDM With AI-Powered Natural Language Processing
• Enhanced Social Network Security System: Integrating Biometric Authentication for Improved User Verification and Privacy Protection
• Smart Budget Allocation in Public Policy: A Data-Driven Approach for Equitable Resource Distribution
• Decision Support System for Faculty Selection, Promotion, and Reclassification Using Predictive Analytics