Assessment of the Bacteriological Quality of Sachet-Packaged Water Brands in Nibo, Anambra State, Nigeria

Background And Objective: Access to safe drinking water remains a major public health challenge in many Nigerian communities. Sachet-packaged water, commonly called "pure water," has become the primary drinking water source for millions of Nigerians who cannot rely on municipal tap water. Despite its widespread use, concerns about the microbiological safety of sachet water is well documented. This study assessed the bacteriological quality of sachet-packaged water brands sold in Nibo, a semi-urban community in Anambra State, Nigeria, and to determine whether these products meet World Health Organization drinking water standards.
Methods: A cross-sectional descriptive design was used in the study. Twelve commonly consumed sachet water brands were purposively sampled from vendors in Nibo between April to September 2025. Samples were transported under sterile conditions to the laboratory and analysed using standard microbiological methods, including total bacterial count on nutrient agar, total coliform count on eosin methylene blue agar, and biochemical identification of bacterial isolates. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics (frequencies, percentages, means, medians, standard deviations) and one-sample t-tests with 95% wilson confidence intervals.
Results: From the 12 brands tested, 7 (58.3%) showed no bacterial growth and met WHO safety standards. However, 5 brands (41.7%) were contaminated. Among contaminated samples, total bacterial counts ranged from 30 to 110 CFU/mL (mean: 68 CFU/mL), and total coliform counts ranged from 10 to 50 CFU/mL (mean: 24 CFU/mL). Two samples (16.7%) tested positive for Escherichia coli, confirming faecal contamination. Identified bacterial species included Staphylococcus aureus (16.7%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (16.7%), Proteus mirabilis (16.7%), Citrobacter freundii (16.7%), Klebsiella pneumoniae (8.3%), Escherichia coli (8.3%), Shigella flexneri (8.3%), and Enterobacter aerogenes (8.3%).
Conclusion and Implications for Translation: Although the majority of sachet water brands tested were safe, a substantial proportion (41.7%) contained bacteria that pose health risks, including faecal indicator organisms and opportunistic pathogens. Mean total bacterial count (68±32CFU/mL) and coliform count (24±17CFU/mL) was significantly above the acceptable limit at (p<0.05). People who drink these contaminated products, particularly children, elderly individuals, and immunocompromised persons, face preventable risks of diarrhoeal and other infections. Regulators should increase unannounced inspections and enforce penalties for violations. Producers must improve hygiene practices, including regular equipment cleaning and water testing. Public health awareness campaigns should help consumers identify safer brands. Future research studies are to be conducted larger sample sizes, seasonal sampling, and antimicrobial resistance testing.

Sachet water; bacteriological quality; coliforms; Escherichia coli; public health; Nigeria; drinking water safety

1. Adekunle, A. A., Adekunle, I. O., & Adetunji, M. T. (2004). Sachet water consumption in Nigeria: A study of urban water supply challenges. African Journal of Environmental Assessment and Management, 8(1), 45–52. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Cheesbrough, M. (2006). District laboratory practice in tropical countries (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. Dada, A. C. (2009). Sachet water phenomenon in Nigeria: Assessment of the potential health impacts. African Journal of Microbiology Research, 3(1), 15–21. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. Diggle, S. P., & Whiteley, M. (2020). Microbe profile: Pseudomonas aeruginosa: Opportunistic pathogen and lab rat. Microbiology, 166(1), 30–33. https://doi.org/10.1099/mic.0.000860 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. Edema, M. O., Atayese, A. O., & Bankole, M. O. (2011). Pure water syndrome: Bacteriological quality of sachet-packed drinking water sold in Nigeria. African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development, 11(1), 4595–4609. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Ekwunife, O., & Aguwa, C. N. (2018). Microbial quality of sachet water consumed in rural communities of Anambra State, Nigeria. Journal of Health Research and Reviews, 5(2), 90–96. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. Kotloff, K. L., Riddle, M. S., Platts-Mills, J. A., Pavlinac, P., & Zaidi, A. K. M. (2018). Shigellosis. The Lancet, 391(10122), 801–812. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)33296-8 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. Mosi, L., Adadey, S. M., Sowah, S. A., & Yeboah, C. (2019). Microbiological assessment of sachet water "pure water" from five regions in Ghana. AAS Open Research, 1, 12. https://doi.org/10.12688/aasopenres.12837.2 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. Nkere, C. K., Ibe, N. I., & Iroegbu, C. U. (2011). Bacteriological quality of foods and water sold by vendors in Nsukka, Nigeria. International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 10(3), 233–238. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. Ojekunle, O. Z., Ojekunle, O. V., Adeyemi, A. A., Taiwo, A. G., Sangowusi, O. R., Taiwo, A. M., & Adekitan, A. A. (2015). Bacteriological quality of sachet water in Ogun State, Nigeria. Journal of Water and Health, 13(3), 866–874. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2015.102 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. Omalu, I. C., Eze, G. C., Olayemi, I. K., & Otuu, C. A. (2010). Contamination of sachet water in Nigeria: Assessment of health risks. African Journal of Microbiology Research, 4(23), 2554–2559. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. Oyem, I. M., Oyem, I. L., & Nweke, E. N. (2014). Sachet water quality in Nigeria: Public health implications. Journal of Water and Health, 12(4), 690–698. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2014.034 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Paczosa, M. K., & Mecsas, J. (2016). Klebsiella pneumoniae: Going on the offense with a strong defense. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews, 80(3), 629–661. https://doi.org/10.1128/MMBR.00078-15 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. Prüss-Ustün, A., Wolf, J., Bartram, J., Clasen, T., Cumming, O., Freeman, M. C., Gordon, B., Hunter, P. R., Medlicott, K., & Johnston, R. (2019). Burden of disease from inadequate water, sanitation and hygiene for selected adverse health outcomes: An updated analysis with a focus on low- and middle-income countries. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 222(5), 765–777. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2019.05.004 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. Tong, S. Y. C., Davis, J. S., Eichenberger, E., Holland, T. L., & Fowler, V. G. (2015). Staphylococcus aureus infections: Epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, and management. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 28(3), 603–661. https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00134-14 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. UNICEF & World Health Organization (WHO). (2020). Progress on household drinking water, sanitation and hygiene 2000–2020: Five years into the SDGs. United Nations. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. von Elm, E., Altman, D. G., Egger, M., Pocock, S. J., Gøtzsche, P. C., & Vandenbroucke, J. P. (2007). The Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) statement: Guidelines for reporting observational studies. The Lancet, 370(9596), 1453–1457. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61602-X [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. World Health Organization (WHO). (2017). Guidelines for drinking-water quality (4th ed., incorporating the 1st addendum). WHO. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241549950 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. World Health Organization (WHO). (2023). Drinking water fact sheet. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/drinking-water [Google Scholar] [Crossref]