Integrating Social Entrepreneurship and Smallholder Agriculture: A Faith-Based Development Model for Financial Sustainability in Eastern Zambia

Faith-based organizations (FBOs) are among the most deeply embedded and socially trusted development actors in rural Sub-Saharan Africa; yet, their economic potential remains underexamined in development theory and empirical scholarship. While FBOs are frequently recognized for their contributions to education, health, and humanitarian assistance, limited attention has been given to their capacity to function as sustainable economic institutions capable of mobilizing local resources for long-term development financing. This study proposes a faith-based social entrepreneurship model that integrates smallholder agriculture with institutional financial sustainability and social welfare outcomes.

faith-based organizations; social entrepreneurship; smallholder agriculture

1. Barrett, C. B., Bachke, M. E., Bellemare, M. F., Michelson, H. C., Narayanan, S., & Walker, T. F. (2012). Smallholder participation in contract farming: Comparative evidence from five countries. World Development, 40(4), 715–730. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2011.09.006 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Barrett, C. B., Reardon, T., & Swinnen, J. (2021). Agrifood Value Chains and Poverty Reduction. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 35(4), 161–180. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.35.4.161 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using Thematic Analysis in Psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. Bryman, A. (2016). Social research methods (5th ed.). Oxford University Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. Clarke, G. (2006). Faith matters: Faith-based Organizations, Civil Society and International Development. Journal of International Development, 18(6), 835–848.https://doi.org/10.1002/jid.1317 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Clarke, G. (2013). Faith-Based Organizations and International Development: An Overview. In G. Clarke (Ed.), Handbook of Research on Development and Religion (pp. 17–45). Edward Elgar. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. Clarke, G., & Ware, V. (2015). Understanding Faith-Based Organizations: How FBOs are Contrasted with NGOs in International Development Literature. Progress in Development Studies, 15(1), 37–48. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464993414546979 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (5th ed.). SAGE Publications. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2018). Designing and conducting mixed methods research (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. Dees, J. G. (2017). The Meaning of Social Entrepreneurship. In J. Kickul & S. Bacq (Eds.), Social Entrepreneurship: The Role of Institutions (pp. 22–30). Edward Elgar. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. Doherty, B., Haugh, H., & Lyon, F. (2019). Social Enterprises as Hybrid Organizations: A Review and Research Agenda. International Journal of Management Reviews, 21(4), 415–436. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijmr.12199 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. El-Majzoub, S., Narasiah, L., Adrien, A., Kaiser, D., & Rousseau, C. (2021). Negotiating Safety and Wellbeing: Collaboration Between Faith-Based Communities and Public Health During the COVID-19 Pandemic. Journal of Religion and Health, 60, 4564–4578. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-021-01434-z [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2022). The State of Food and Agriculture. FAO. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. Jacinto, E., Figueiredo Dalla Costa Ames, M. C., Serafim, M. C., & Zappellini, M. B. (2023). Religion– Spirituality Influences in the Governance of Faith-Based Organizations During the COVID-19 Pandemic. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. Public Organization Review, 23, 531–550.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11115-023-00704-6 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. Lubungu, M., Burke, W. J., & Sitko, N. J. (2019). Analysis of the Soybean Value Chain in Zambia’s Eastern Province. Indaba Agricultural Policy Research Institute. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. Mair, J., & Martí, I. (2006). Social Entrepreneurship Research: A Source of Explanation, Prediction, and Delight. Journal of World Business, 41(1), 36–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2005.09.002 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. Murithi, W., Ndunge, A., & Njiraini, N. (2024). Entrepreneurial Competency Assessment Among FaithBased Social Enterprises in Africa. SSRN Electronic Journal.https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4933487 18. Myers, B. L. (2011). Walking with the Poor: Principles and Practices of Transformational Development (Rev. ed.). Orbis Books. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. Ncube, D. (2020). The Importance of Contract Farming to Small-Scale Farmers in Africa and the Implications for Policy: A Review Scenario. The Open Agriculture Journal, 14(1), 59–86.https://doi.org/10.2174/1874331502014010059 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American community. Simon & Schuster. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. Rakodi, C. (2015). Development Ethics and Faith-Based Development. World Development, 66, 1–12.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2014.08.007 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

22. Ruml, A. (2021). Contract Farming and Smallholder Livelihoods. Journal of Development Studies, 57(4), 1–17. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

23. Scoones, I. (2009). Livelihood Perspectives and Rural Development. Journal of Peasant Studies, 36(1), 171–196.https://doi.org/10.1080/03066150902820503 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

24. Siamabele, B., & Manda, S. (2024). Soybean Expansion and Smallholder Livelihoods in Rural Zambia: Dynamics, Experiences, and Implications. Cogent Food & Agriculture, 10(1), 2413402. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2024.2413402 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

25. Sitko, N. J., & Jayne, T. S. (2021). Structural Transformation or Structural Stagnation? Agricultural Growth and Poverty Reduction in Zambia. World Development, 139, 105304.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105304 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

26. Swart, I., & Renders, L. (2020). Faith-Based Organizations and Development: An African Perspective. HTS Teologiese Studies, 76(4), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.4102/hts.v76i4.5998 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

27. Tomalin, E. (2021). Religions and Development. Routledge. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

28. Ton, G., Vellema, W., Desiere, S., Weituschat, S., & D’Haese, M. (2018). Contract farming for improving smallholder incomes: What can we learn from effectiveness studies? World Development, 104, 46–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2017.11.015 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

29. United Nations Development Programme. (2023). Human Development Report 2023/2024: Breaking the Gridlock. UNDP. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

30. World Bank. (2023). World Development Indicators. World Bank. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

31. Yin, R. K. (2018). Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods (6th ed.). SAGE Publications. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

32. White, E. G. (1948). Christ’s Object Lessons. Review and Herald. (Original work published 1900) [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

33. _________. (1948). Education. Review and Herald. (Original work published 1903) [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

34. _________. (1948). The Ministry of Healing. Review and Herald. (Original work published 1905) [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

35. _________. (1948). Welfare Ministry. Review and Herald. (Original work published 1898) [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

36. _________. (1946). Testimonies for the Church (Vol. 7). Review and Herald. (Original work published 1902) [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

37. _________. (1952). Patriarchs and Prophets. Review and Herald. (Original work published 1890) [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

• An Exploration of Stakeholders Perceived Mitigation Measures for Addressing Sanitation Challenges in George Compound in Lusaka Zambia
• Public Participation in Sustainable Development Programs: Examining Public Participation Methods and Levels at Pustaka Negeri Sarawak
• Responding to Climate Change through Livelihood Diversification: Implications of Household Economic Well-Being in Coastal Greater Accra
• Teacher Character Development Through Virtue and Eudaimonia: Insights from Nominal Group Technique (NGT)
• Transformation of Muslim Friendly Hospitality: An Overview of Shariah Compliant Tourism Development in Malaysia