Review of the Research Literature on Dyscalculia: from Genetic Genealogy to Adaptive Teaching Tools

Dyscalculia is a common neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by difficulties in processing numerical information, understanding quantitative concepts, and performing simple mathematical calculations, and is seen in approximately 3 to 7 percent of children. This article reviews 61 studies between 2006 and 2025 to analyse the strategies and challenges of cognitive, neurological, and technological interventions. The results show that dyscalculia is a heterogeneous disorder and is associated with problems such as poor working memory, attention, cognitive inhibition, and math anxiety. Brain imaging findings such as fMRI show reduced activity in areas related to number perception, such as the interparietal sulcus and angular gyrus. Differences in the brain networks of children with dyscalculia can also help identify specific cognitive profiles. Four areas of intervention are proposed, including structured instruction, adaptive digital tools, early screening, and neurophysiological interventions (such as brain stimulation). Tools such as Calcularis and EDSense are effective in improving numerical skills and reducing anxiety. However, children with co-occurring disorders such as dyslexia or ADHD respond less well to interventions. Genetic studies also suggest genetic overlap between these disorders and deletions of genes such as 15q11.2. Finally, the need to design multi-layered, personalized interventions and use new technologies is emphasized to map out a more effective path to identifying and treating dyscalculia.

Dyscalculia development; Dyscalculia treatment; technological intervention

1. Kaufmann, L. (2008). Dyscalculia and intervention tools: A review of current practice and research. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 41(6), 516–528. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219408317485 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Calderón Delgado, M. A., Zamora Delgado, R. I., Palma Palma, R., & Moya, M. E. (2019). Dyscalculia and pedagogical intervention. International Research Journal of Management, IT & Social Sciences, 6(5), 95–100. https://doi.org/10.21744/irjmis.v6n5.710 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. Wu, Y., Cheng, Y., Yang, X., Yu, W., & Wan, Y. (2022). Dyslexia: A bibliometric and visualization analysis. Frontiers in Public Health, 10, 915053. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.915053 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., & Compton, D. L. (2013). Intervention effects for students with comorbid forms of learning disability: Understanding the needs of nonresponders. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 46(6), 534-548. https://doi.org/10.1177/00222194060390030301:contentReference[oaicite:6]{index=6} [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. Kißler, C., Schwenk, C., & Kuhn, J.-T. (2021). Two dyscalculia subtypes with similar, low comorbidity profiles: A mixture model analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 589506. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.589506 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Askenazi, S., & Henik, A. (2010). Attentional networks in developmental dyscalculia. Behavioral and Brain Functions, 6, 2. https://doi.org/10.1186/1744-9081-6-2 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. Käser, T., Baschera, G.-M., Gross, M., Kohn, J., & von Aster, M. (2013). Design and evaluation of the computer-based training program Calcularis for enhancing numerical cognition. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 489. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00489 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. Apostolidou, M. (2025). Digital interventions for dyscalculia: A literature review, GSC Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 22(03), 323-340, DOI: https://doi.org/10.30574/gscarr.2025.22.3.0092 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. Jadhav, D., Chettri, S. K., Tripathy, A. K., & Saikia, M. J. (2025). A technology-driven assistive learning tool and framework for personalized dyscalculia interventions. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education, 15(5), 85. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe15050085 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. Lee EK, Huh H, Kim WY, Lee H, Yoo H. Validity of the Simplified Computerized Comprehensive Learning Ability Screening Test for the Early Detection of Learning Disabilities. Psychiatry International. 2025; 6(2):60, https://doi.org/10.3390/psychiatryint6020060 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. Grant JG, Siegel LS and D’Angiulli A (2020) From Schools to Scans: A Neuroeducational Approach to Comorbid Math and Reading Disabilities. Front. Public Health 8:469. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2020.00469 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. Kucian, K., Loenneker, T., Martin, E., & von Aster, M. (2011). Diagnosing developmental dyscalculia on the basis of reliable single case fMRI methods: Promises and limitations. PLoS ONE, 6(3), e17053. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0017053 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Berteletti, I., Prado, J., & Booth, J. R. (2014). Children with mathematical learning disability fail in recruiting verbal and numerical brain regions when solving simple multiplication problems. Cortex, 58, 143–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2014.04.001 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. Gongor, F., & Tutsoy, O. (2023). Survey on recent artificial intelligence-based assistive robotics technologies for children with special needs. International Journal of Intelligent Robotics and Applications, 7, 247–264. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41315-023-00273-y:contentReference[oaicite:9]{index=9} [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. Ulfarsson, M. O., Walters, G. B., Gustafsson, O., Steinberg, S., Silva, A., Doyle, O. M., ... & Stefansson, K. (2017). 15q11.2 CNV affects cognitive, structural and functional correlates of dyslexia and dyscalculia. Translational Psychiatry, 7, e1109. https://doi.org/10.1038/tp.2017.77 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. Ciulkinyte, A., Mountford, H.S., Fontanillas, P. et al. Genetic neurodevelopmental clustering and dyslexia. Mol Psychiatry 30, 140–150 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-024-02649-8 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. Kewalramani, S., Allen, K. A., Leif, E., & Ng, A. (2024). A scoping review of the use of robotics technologies for supporting social-emotional learning in children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 54(12), 4481-4495. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. Grant Jeremy G. , Siegel Linda S. , D'Angiulli Amedeo , From Schools to Scans: A Neuroeducational Approach to Comorbid Math and Reading Disabilities, DOI=10.3389/fpubh.2020.00469,https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/public-health/articles/10.3389/fpubh.2020.00469, [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. Michels, L., Riese, F., O'Gorman, R., Klaver, P., & Kucian, K. (2022). Functional hyperconnectivity vanishes in children with developmental dyscalculia after numerical training. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 54, 101092. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2022.101092:contentReference[oaicite:3]{index=3} [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. Lindsay, R. L., Tomazic, T., Levine, M. D., & Accardo, P. J. (n.d.). Impact of attentional dysfunction in dyscalculia. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. Szücs, D., Devine, A., Soltesz, F., Nobes, A., & Gabriel, F. C. (2013). Developmental dyscalculia is related to visuo-spatial memory and inhibition impairment. Cortex, 49(10), 2674–2688. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2013.06.007 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

22. Li, T., Cheng, D., Chen, C., Gong, G., Lv, J., & Zhou, X. (2023). Altered resting‐state functional connectivity in the prefrontal cortex is related to the development of dyscalculia in patients with Turner syndrome. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 77(4), 386–392. https://doi.org/10.1111/pcn.13543 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

23. Svraka, B., Lasker, J., & Ujma, P. P. (2024). Cognitive, affective and sociological predictors of school performance in mathematics. Scientific Reports, 14, 26480. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-77904-7 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

24. López-Resa, P., & Moraleda-Sepúlveda, E. (2023). Working memory capacity and text comprehension performance in children with dyslexia and dyscalculia: A pilot study. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1191304. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1191304 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

25. Haberstroh, S., & Schulte-Körne, G. (2019). Clinical practice guideline: The diagnosis and treatment of dyscalculia. Deutsches Ärzteblatt International, 116(7), 107–114. https://doi.org/10.3238/arztebl.2019.0107 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

26. Wilson, A. J., Revkin, S. K., Cohen, D., Cohen, L., & Dehaene, S. (2006). An open trial assessment of "The Number Race", an adaptive computer game for remediation of dyscalculia. Behavioral and Brain Functions, 2, 20. https://doi.org/10.1186/1744-9081-2-20 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

27. Hellstrand, H., Holopainen, S., Korhonen, J., Räisänen, P., Hakkarainen, A., Laakso, M.-J., Laine, A., & Aunio, P. (2024). Arithmetic fluency and number processing skills in identifying students with mathematical learning disabilities. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 151, 104795. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2024.104795 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

28. Cárdenas, S. Y., Silva-Pereyra, J., Prieto-Corona, B., Castro-Chavira, S. A., & Fernández, T. (2021). Arithmetic processing in children with dyscalculia: An event-related potential study. PeerJ, 9, e10489. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.10489 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

29. Sarit Ashkenazia, Miriam Rosenberg-Leea, Caitlin Tenisona, Vinod Menon, 1878-9293/$ – see front matter© 2011 Elsevier Ltd. doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2011.09.006 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

30. Sean Aubin, Aaron R. Voelker, Chris Eliasmith, 2016 Cognitive Science Society, Inc. All rights reserved. ISSN:1756-8757 print/1756-8765 online DOI: 10.1111/tops.12242 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

31. Castro, M. V., Bissaco, M. A. S., Panccioni, B. M., Rodrigues, S. C. M., & Domingues, A. M. (2014). Effect of a virtual environment on the development of mathematical skills in children with dyscalculia. PLoS ONE, 9(7), e103354. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0103354 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

32. Kohn, J., Rauscher, L., Kucian, K., Käser, T., Wyschkon, A., Esser, G., & von Aster, M. (2020). Efficacy of a computer-based learning program in children with developmental dyscalculia: What influences individual responsiveness? Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1115. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01115 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

33. Lee, H., Song, I., Kim, W. Y., Huh, H., Lee, E. K., Jung, J., ... & Yoo, H. (2024). Efficacy of Learning Disorder Treatment for Reading or Mathematics Disorders: An Open Study. Journal of the Korean Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35(2), 143. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

34. Marissa L. Laws , Anna A. Matejko , Melanie Lozano , Eileen Napoliello, Guinevere F. Eden , https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2022.103042 ,2213-1582/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

35. Mateu-Estivill R, AdanA,GrauS, Rifà-Ros X, CaldúX,BargallóN,etal.Alterations infunctional brain connectivity associated with developmentaldyscalculia. J Neuroimaging.2024;34:694–703. https://doi.org/10.1111/jon.13236 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

36. Kwok, F. Y., Wilkey, E. D., Peters, L., Khiu, E., Bull, R., Lee, K., & Ansari, D. (2023). Developmental dyscalculia is not associated with atypical brain activation: A univariate fMRI study of arithmetic, magnitude processing, and visuospatial working memory. Human Brain Mapping, 44(18), 6308–6325. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.26495 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

37. Rubinsten, O., & Tannock, R. (2010). Mathematics anxiety in children with developmental dyscalculia. Behavioral and Brain functions, 6, 1-13. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

38. Vigna, G.; Ghidoni, E.; Burgio, F.; Danesin, L.; Angelini, D.; Benavides-Varela, S.; Semenza, C. Dyscalculia in Early Adulthood: Implications for Numerical Activities of Daily Living. Brain Sci. 2022, 12, 373. https://doi.org/10.3390/ brainsci12030373 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

39. Kaufmann L, von Aster M: The diagnosis and management of dyscalculia. Dtsch Arztebl Int 2012; 109(45): 767–78. DOI: 10.3238/arztebl.2012.0767 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

40. Li, T., Cheng, D., Chen, C., Gong, G., Lv, J., & Zhou, X. (2023). Altered resting‐state functional connectivity in the prefrontal cortex is related to the development of dyscalculia in patients with Turner syndrome. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 77(7), 386–392. https://doi.org/10.1111/pcn.13543:contentReference[oaicite:2]{index=2} [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

41. Cheng, D., Miao, X., Wu, H., Chen, C., Chen, Q., & Zhou, X. (2022). Dyscalculia and dyslexia in Chinese children with idiopathic epilepsy: Different patterns of prevalence, comorbidity, and gender differences. Epilepsia Open, 7(1), 160–169. https://doi.org/10.1002/epi4.12577 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

42. Schwizer Ashkenazi, S., Roell, M., McCaskey, U., Cachia, A., Borst, G., Tuura, R. O., & Kucian, K. (2024). Are numerical abilities determined at early age? A brain morphology study in children and adolescents with and without developmental dyscalculia. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 67, 101369. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2024.101369 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

43. Calì, F., Di Blasi, F. D., Avola, E., Vinci, M., Musumeci, A., Gloria, A., ... & Buono, S. (2023). Specific Learning Disorders: Variation Analysis of 15 Candidate Genes in 9 Multiplex Families. Medicina, 59(8), 1503. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina59081503 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

44. Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., Cho, E., Barnes, M. A., Koponen, T., & Espinas, D. R. (2024). Comorbid word reading and mathematics computation difficulty at start of first grade. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 58(2), 112–127. https://doi.org/10.1177/00222194241248188 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

45. MacKinnon McQuarrie, M. A., Siegel, L. S., Perry, N. E., & Weinberg, J. (2014). Reactivity to stress and the cognitive components of math disability in grade 1 children. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 47(4), 349–365. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219412463436 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

46. Tolar, T. D., Fuchs, L., Fletcher, J. M., Fuchs, D., & Hamlett, C. L. (2016). Cognitive profiles of mathematical problem solving learning disability for different definitions of disability. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 49(3), 240–256. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219414538520 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

47. Kucian, K., Loenneker, T., Dietrich, T., Dosch, M., Martin, E., & von Aster, M. (2006). Developmental dyscalculia is not associated with atypical brain activation: A univariate fMRI study of arithmetic, magnitude processing, and visuospatial working memory. Developmental Neuropsychology, 30(3), 593–625. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326942dn3003_7 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

48. Landerl, K., Bevan, A., & Butterworth, B. (2004). Developmental dyscalculia and basic numerical capacities: A study of 8–9-year-old students. Cognition, 93(2), 99–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2003.11.004 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

49. Kaufmann, L., Vogel, S. E., Starke, M., Kremser, C., & Schocke, M. (2009). Developmental dyscalculia: Gender differences in brain activation patterns during mental rotation. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 42(4), 258–271. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219408330034 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

50. Shalev, R. S., Manor, O., Kerem, B., Ayzikovitch, A., Friedlander, Y., & Gross-Tsur, V. (2001). Developmental dyscalculia and the developmental Gerstmann syndrome: A study of their familial traits. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 43(10), 751–755. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8749.2001.tb00145.x [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

51. Price, G. R., Holloway, I., Räsänen, P., Vesterinen, M., & Ansari, D. (2007). Impaired parietal magnitude processing in developmental dyscalculia. Current Biology, 17(24), R1042–R1043. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2007.10.013 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

52. Rosenberg-Lee, M., Chang, T. T., Young, C. B., Wu, S., & Menon, V. (2015). Brain hyper-connectivity and operation-specific deficits during arithmetic problem solving in children with developmental dyscalculia. Developmental Science, 18(3), 351–372. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12223 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

53. Ashkenazi, S., Rosenberg-Lee, M., Tenison, C., & Menon, V. (2012). Weak task-related modulation and stimulus representations during arithmetic problem solving in children with developmental dyscalculia. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 2(S1), S152–S166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2011.09.006 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

54. Wilkey, E. D., Pollack, C., & Price, G. R. (2020). Dyscalculia and typical math achievement are associated with individual differences in number-specific executive function. Child Development, 91(2), 596–619. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13194 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

55. Gut, M., Mańkowska, K., Słupczewski, J., & Matulewski, J. (2022). Heterogeneity of dyscalculia risk dependent on the type of number line estimation task and the number magnitude. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(10), 6164. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19106164 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

56. Szücs, D., Devine, A., Soltesz, F., Nobes, A., & Gabriel, F. C. (2013). Developmental dyscalculia is related to visuo-spatial memory and inhibition impairment. Cortex, 49(10), 2674–2688. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2013.06.007 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

57. Michels, L., O'Gorman, R. L., Kucian, K., et al. (2022). Alterations in functional brain connectivity associated with developmental dyscalculia. Human Brain Mapping, 43(1), 103–119. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.25697 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

58. Dinkel PJ, Willmes K, Krinzinger H, Konrad K, Koten Jr JW (2013) Diagnosing Developmental Dyscalculia based on Reliable Single Case FMRI Methods: Promises and Limitations. PLoS ONE 8(12): e83722. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0083722 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

59. Qin, S., Cho, S., Chen, T., Rosenberg-Lee, M., Geary, D. C., & Menon, V. (2014). Improving with practice: A neural model of mathematical development. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 10, 18–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2014.07.004 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

60. Morgan, P. L., Farkas, G., Hillemeier, M. M., & Maczuga, S. (2016). Who is at risk for persistent mathematics difficulties in the United States?. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 49(3), 305–319. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219414553849 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

61. Butterworth, B., Varma, S., & Laurillard, D. (2011). Dyscalculia: From brain to education. Science, 332(6033), 1049–1053. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1201536 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

• The Impact of Ownership Structure on Dividend Payout Policy of Listed Plantation Companies in Sri Lanka
• Urban Sustainability in North-East India: A Study through the lens of NER-SDG index
• Performance Assessment of Predictive Forecasting Techniques for Enhancing Hospital Supply Chain Efficiency in Healthcare Logistics
• The Fractured Self in Julian Barnes' Postmodern Fiction: Identity Crisis and Deflation in Metroland and the Sense of an Ending
• Impact of Flood on the Employment, Labour Productivity and Migration of Agricultural Labour in North Bihar