Community Perceptions of Road Traffic Accident Causality in Central and Upper River Regions’ South of the Gambia: A Comprehensive Mixed-Methods Analysis for Evidence-Based Road Safety

Road traffic accidents remain a devastating public health crisis in low and middle-income countries, which account for over 90% of global fatalities despite having less than 60% of the world's vehicles. This study investigates community perceptions of accident causes in The Gambia's Central River and Upper River Regions using a mixed-methods approach that combined surveys, open-ended responses, and direct observation of road conditions.

Road Traffic Accidents, Community Perceptions, Causal Attribution, Participatory Policy

1. Ackaah, W., Apuseyine, B. A., & Afukaar, F. K. (2019). Road traffic crash risk perception among commercial drivers in Ghana. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 65, 425–434. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2019.08.012 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. African Union Commission. (2021). African Road Safety Action Plan 2021-2030. Addis Ababa: African Union. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. Afukaar, F. K., Antwi, P., & Ofosu-Amaah, S. (2021). Pattern of road traffic injuries in Ghana: Implications for control. Injury Control and Safety Promotion, 10 (1-2), 69–76. https://doi.org/10.1080/15660970500036825 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. Bachani, A. M., Peden, M., Gururaj, G., Norton, R., & Hyder, A. A. (2020). Road traffic injuries: A public health crisis in Africa. African Journal of Emergency Medicine, 10 (Suppl 1), S1–S4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.afjem.2020.01.006 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. Beck, U. (1992). Risk society: Towards a new modernity. Sage Publications. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Berger, P. L., & Luckmann, T. (1966). The social construction of reality: A treatise in the sociology of knowledge. Anchor Books. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. Bhalla, K., Harrison, J. E., & Fingerhut, L. A. (2021). The global burden of road traffic injuries: A review of methods, data sources, and studies. Injury Prevention, 27 (Suppl 1), i1–i2. https://doi.org/10.1136/injuryprev-2021-044276 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In J. G. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of theory and research for the sociology of education (pp. 241–258). Greenwood Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3 (2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. Brown, P. (2016). Exploring public attitudes towards road accident causes. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 94 , 60–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2016.05.021 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. Carstensen, G., Karlsson, A., & Ohlsson, A. (2019). Fatalistic beliefs regarding road accidents: Understanding the Swedish concept of 'Safeility'. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 127, 27–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2019.02.014 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. Ceesay, M. (2020). Road traffic accident trends in The Gambia: A five-year analysis. University of The Gambia Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2017). Designing and conducting mixed methods research (3rd ed.). Sage Publications. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2018). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (4th ed.). Sage Publications. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. Douglas, M., & Wildavsky, A. (1982). Risk and culture: An essay on the selection of technical and environmental dangers. University of California Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. Etikan, I., Musa, S. A., & Alkassim, R. S. (2016). Comparison of convenience sampling and purposive sampling. American Journal of Theoretical and Applied Statistics, 5 (1), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajtas.20160501.11 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. Fereday, J., & Muir-Cochrane, E. (2006). Demonstrating rigor using thematic analysis: A hybrid approach of inductive and deductive coding and theme development. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 5 (1), 80–92. https://doi.org/10.1177/160940690600500107 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. Fetters, M. D. (2020). The mixed methods research workbook: Activities for designing, implementing, and publishing projects. Sage Publications. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. Fetters, M. D., Curry, L. A., & Creswell, J. W. (2013). Achieving integration in mixed methods designs—principles and practices. Health Services Research, 48 (6pt2), 2134–2156. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6773.12117 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. Flyvbjerg, B. (2011). Case study. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage handbook of qualitative research (4th ed., pp. 301–316). Sage Publications. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. Forward, S. E. (2021). The theory of planned behaviour: The role of descriptive norms and past behaviour in the prediction of drivers' intentions to violate. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 14 (3), 198–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2010.12.002 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

22. Gambia Bureau of Statistics. (2013). Gambia population and housing census 2013. https://www.gbos.gov.gm/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

23. Gambia Bureau of Statistics. (2023). The Gambia population and housing census 2023: Preliminary report. Banjul: GBOS. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

24. Gambia Police Force Traffic Department. (2023). Annual traffic accident report 2022. Banjul: GPF. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

25. Garcia, R. (2019). Cultural perspectives on road accident causes. Journal of Safety Research, 85, 120–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2019.07.009 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

26. Government of The Gambia. (2018). National Road Safety Strategy 2018-2022. Ministry of Transport, Works & Infrastructure. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

27. Haagsma, J. A., Graetz, N., Bolliger, I., Naghavi, M., Higashi, H., Mullany, E. C., ... & Vos, T. (2020). The global burden of injury: Incidence, mortality, disability-adjusted life years and time trends from the Global Burden of Disease study 2013. Injury Prevention, 22 (1), 3–18. https://doi.org/10.1136/injuryprev-2015-041616 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

28. Hassan, H. M., & Abdel-Aty, M. A. (2021). Analysis of drivers' perceptions of the causes of traffic crashes in developing countries: A case study of Saudi Arabia. Journal of Safety Research, 78, 235–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2021.06.005 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

29. Hesse-Biber, S. N. (2017). The practice of qualitative research (3rd ed.). Sage Publications. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

30. Huang, Y., Zhang, Y., & Li, Z. (2022). Road safety in Africa: Current state, challenges, and opportunities. Journal of Transportation Safety & Security, 14 (1), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/19439962.2021.1998556 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

31. International Road Assessment Programme. (2021). iRAP methodology overview. iRAP. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

32. Jagne, S. (2022). Community perceptions of road safety in urban Gambia [Unpublished master's thesis]. University of The Gambia. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

33. Jallow, M. (2016). The Gambia Transport Sector Development and Road Safety Project. African Development Bank. https://www.afdb.org/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

34. Jallow, M. (2021). Road safety challenges in The Gambia: A policy analysis. West African Journal of Transportation, 8 (2), 45–62. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

35. Johnson, M. (2018). Public perspectives on road safety: A review of the literature. Journal of Transport Geography, 72, 10–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2018.07.012 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

36. Jones, D. (2017). Perceptions of road accident causes among different age groups. Transportation Research Part E: Logistics and Transportation Review, 64, 90–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tre.2017.05.012 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

37. Jurewicz, C., Sobhani, A., Woolley, J., Corben, B., & D’Elia, A. (2020). Exploration of vehicle factors associated with crash severity in Queensland, Australia. Journal of Safety Research, 74, 155–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2020.06.002 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

38. Kasperson, R. E., Renn, O., Slovic, P., Brown, H. S., Emel, J., Goble, R., ... & Ratick, S. (2020). The social amplification of risk: A conceptual framework. Risk Analysis, 8 (2), 177–187. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1539-6924.1988.tb01168.x [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

39. Kim, H. (2016). Social determinants of community attitudes towards road accident causes. Journal of Community Health, 41 (3), 560–570. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10900-015-0132-z [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

40. Lee, E. (2018). Gender differences in community attitudes towards road accident causes. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 102, 150–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2018.02.024 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

41. Mertens, D. M. (2020). Research and evaluation in education and psychology: Integrating diversity with quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods (5th ed.). Sage Publications. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

42. Ministry of Transport, Works & Infrastructure. (2022). Rural road inventory and condition survey. Government of The Gambia. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

43. Musselwhite, C., Avineri, E., & Susilo, Y. (2020). The travel behaviour intentions of young people in the context of climate change. Journal of Transport Geography, 18 (2), 238–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2009.05.001 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

44. Naci, H., Chisholm, D., & Baker, T. D. (2020). Distribution of road traffic deaths by road user group: A global comparison. Injury Prevention, 15 (1), 55–59. https://doi.org/10.1136/ip.2008.020172 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

45. National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. (1979). The Belmont Report: Ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

46. Nguyen, T., Nguyen, H., & Pham, V. (2020). Perceptions of road accident causes among urban and rural communities. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 72, 80–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2019.04.024 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

47. Odero, W., Khayesi, M., & Heda, P. M. (2020). Road traffic injuries in Kenya: Magnitude, causes and status of intervention. Injury Control and Safety Promotion, 10 (1-2), 53–61. https://doi.org/10.1076/icsp.10.1.53.14103 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

48. Ojang, G. (2017). Causes and effects of road traffic accidents in the Gambia. International Journal of Engineering Research and General Science, 5 (6), 82–89. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

49. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2022). Road safety annual report 2022. OECD Publishing. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

50. Oviedo-Trespalacios, O., Haque, M. M., King, M., & Washington, S. (2022). Effects of road infrastructure and traffic complexity in speed adaptation behaviour of distracted drivers. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 101, 67–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2017.01.019 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

51. Patel, S. (2018). Community knowledge and perceptions of road accident causes. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 55, 70–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2018.02.018 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

52. Patton, M. Q. (2015). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (4th ed.). Sage Publications. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

53. Peden, M., Scurfield, R., Sleet, D., Mohan, D., Hyder, A. A., Jarawan, E., & Mathers, C. (Eds.). (2004). World report on road traffic injury prevention. World Health Organization. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

54. Peden, M., Scurfield, R., Sleet, D., Mohan, D., Hyder, A. A., Jarawan, E., & Mathers, C. (Eds.). (2022). World report on road traffic injury prevention. World Health Organization. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

55. Rosenbloom, T., Perlman, A., & Shahar, A. (2021). The cross-cultural differences in perceived accident causes. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 14 (5), 347–356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2011.06.001 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

56. Rosenstock, I. M., Strecher, V. J., & Becker, M. H. (1988). Social learning theory and the Health Belief Model. Health Education Quarterly, 15 (2), 175–183. https://doi.org/10.1177/109019818801500203 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

57. Rundmo, T. (2021). Associations between affect, risk perception, and safety behaviour. Journal of Risk Research, 5 (4), 383–393. https://doi.org/10.1080/13669877.2021.1958045 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

58. Salmon, P. M., McClure, R., & Stanton, N. A. (2019). Road transport in drift? Applying contemporary systems thinking to road safety. Safety Science, 50 (9), 1829–1838. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2012.03.012 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

59. Sanneh, E., & Colley, M. (2022). Seatbelt and helmet use in The Gambia: Observational study and policy implications. African Journal of Public Health, 12 (3), 112–119. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

60. Sarr, M. (2021). Driver risk perception and behavior in The Gambia [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Bristol. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

61. Slovic, P. (2016). Perception of risk. Science, 236 (4799), 280–285. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.3563507 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

62. Smith, J. (2015). Community perceptions of road accident causes. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 82, 40–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2015.09.009 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

63. Tavakol, M., & Dennick, R. (2011). Making sense of Cronbach's alpha. International Journal of Medical Education, 2, 53–55. https://doi.org/10.5116/ijme.4dfb.8dfd [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

64. Teddlie, C., & Tashakkori, A. (2009). Foundations of mixed methods research: Integrating quantitative and qualitative approaches in the social and behavioral sciences. Sage Publications. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

65. The Point. (2020, October 1). Gambia: 289 died on the road in 2019, Gambia Police Traffic Department reveals. All Africa. https://allafrica.com/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

66. Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1974). Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Science, 185 (4157), 1124–1131. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.185.4157.1124 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

67. United Nations. (2020). Decade of Action for Road Safety 2021-2030. United Nations General Assembly. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

68. Useche, S. A., Alonso, F., Montoro, L., & Esteban, C. (2021). Professional drivers' perceptions of road safety: A qualitative study from Spain. Journal of Transport & Health, 20, 101006. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jth.2020.101006 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

69. Wegman, F., Commandeur, J., Doveh, E., Eksler, V., Gitelman, V., Hakkert, S., ... & Thomas, P. (2017). The influence of infrastructure on road safety: An international comparison. Transportation Research Record, 2019 (1), 142–150. https://doi.org/10.3141/2019-17 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

70. Wilson, L. (2017). Understanding community beliefs about road accident causes. Health Education Research, 32 (5), 450–462. https://doi.org/10.1093/her/cyx035 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

71. World Health Organization. (2018). Global status report on road safety 2018. https://www.who.int/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

72. World Health Organization. (2020). Road traffic injuries. WHO Fact Sheets. https://www.who.int/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

73. World Health Organization. (2023). Global status report on road safety 2023. https://www.who.int/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

74. Zinn, J. O. (2020). "Living in the meantime": The in-between as a central feature of everyday life in risk society. Journal of Risk Research, 23 (7-8), 873–887. https://doi.org/10.1080/13669877.2020.1750455 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

• A Decadal Overview of Welfare Schemes in Telangana (2014–2024)
• Ubuntu and the Missed Development Goals in the Global South: Rethinking MDGs and SDGs through an African Philosophical Lens
• Exploring the Factors of Obesity: Insights from Johor State Civil Servants
• Navigating the Nexus: Challenges Faced by Part-Time Postgraduate Government Employees in Malaysia
• The Lived Experiences of Skilled Filipino Women Immigrants in Denmark