Diversity and Distribution of Birds in an African Urban and Sub-Urban Landscape Case Study: Juba City

This study aims to develop a comprehensive checklist of bird species in Juba City and its surrounding areas, assessing both their diversity and distribution. Through meticulous fieldwork using the Time Species Count (TSC) methodology, the research evaluated the impact of urbanization on avian populations within this African urban and suburban landscape. Our findings reveal a significant diversity of bird species, highlighting the presence of both common urban dwellers and rarer species that thrive in less disturbed suburban environments. The study notes a marked difference in species distribution patterns, with urban areas exhibiting lower biodiversity compared to their suburban counterparts.
The results underline the detrimental effects of urban growth on avian diversity, with habitat loss and fragmentation emerging as primary challenges. The research recommends the implementation of green urban planning strategies to mitigate these impacts, such as the establishment of bird-friendly zones and the preservation of natural habitats within city limits. Additionally, promoting community awareness about the importance of biodiversity conservation in urban settings is crucial.
In conclusion, this research provides valuable insights into the avian diversity and distribution in Juba City, offering a vital benchmark for future studies and conservation efforts. By fostering a harmonious coexistence between urban development and wildlife, it is possible to sustain and enhance the ecological richness of urban landscapes.

NA

1. Adeyanju, T., Olajide, A., & Olufemi, A. (2018). Urban bird diversity in Lagos, Nigeria. Journal of Urban Ecology, 4(1), 1-10. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Antrop, M. (2004). Landscape change and the urbanization process in Europe. Landscape and Urban Planning, 67(1-4), 9-26. [ScienceDirect] [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. Aronson, et al. 2017). A global analysis of the impact of urbanization on bird and plant diversity. Science Advances, 3(5), e160205. [Science Advances] [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. Balmford, A., & Bond, W. (2005). The 2010 challenge: What are we doing to conserve global biodiversity? Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences,360(1454), 225-233. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. Beninde, J., Veith, M., & Hochkirch, A. (2015). Biodiversity in cities needs space: a meta-analysis of factors determining intra-urban biodiversity variation. Ecology Letters. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Berkes, F., Colding, J., & Folke, C. (2000). Rediscovery of traditional ecological knowledge as adaptive management. Ecological Applications, 10(5), 1251-1262 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. Bibby, C. J. (2000). Bird census techniques. Elsevier. [bibby.com/bird-census-techniques] [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. Bibby, C. J., Burgess, N. D., & Hill, D. A. (2000). Bird census techniques. [Academic Press] [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. BirdLife International. (2020). Country Profile: South Sudan. [BirdLife International] [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. BirdLife International. (2024). [BirdLife Data Zone] [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. Blair, R. B. (2001). Birds and butterflies along urban gradients in the Twin Cities metropolitan area, Minnesota. Ecology, 82(11), 3146-3159. [JSTOR] [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. Burghardt, K. T., Tallamy, D. W., & Shriver, W. G. (2009). Impact of native plants on bird and insect biodiversity in suburban landscapes. Conservation Biology, 23(1), 219-224. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Chace, J. F., & Walsh, J. J. (2006). Urban effects on native avifauna: A review. Landscape and Urban Planning. [sciencedirect.com/landscape-urban-planning] [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. Chao, et al. (2014). Rarefaction and extrapolation with Hill numbers: a framework for sampling and estimation in species diversity studies. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. Cilliers, S. S., Siebert, S. J., & Davids, M. (2013). The influence of urbanisation on avian diversity in South African cities. Urban Ecosystems, 16(4), 785-802. [Springer Link] [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. Clergeau, P., Croci, S., Jokimaki, J., Kaisanlahti-Jokimaki, M. L., & Dinetti, M. (2006). Avifauna homogenisation by urbanisation: analysis at different European latitudes. Biological Conservation. [sciencedirect.com/biological-conservation] [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. Colwell, R. K., & Coddington, J. A. (1994). Estimating terrestrial biodiversity through extrapolation. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. Cornelis, J., & Hermy, M. (2004). Biodiversity in urban parks and green spaces: A review. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 3(1), 1-12. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. Cornell Lab of Ornithology (2018).[All About Birds] [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. Czech, B., Krausman, P. R., & Devers, P. K. (2000). Economic associations among causes of species endangerment in the United States. BioScience. [academic.oup.com/bioscience] [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. Danielsen, F., et al. (2014). A method for engaging local communities in biodiversity monitoring. Conservation Biology, 28(5), 1163-1175. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

22. Davies, Z. G., Fuller, R. A., & Gaston, K. J. (2013). The role of urban green spaces in supporting bird populations. Journal of Applied Ecology, 50(2), 332-341. [Wiley Online Library] [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

23. Devictor, V., et al. (2010). Functional diversity of bird communities as an indicator of the effects of urbanization. Ecology Letters, 13(7), 888-897. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

24. Environment, 2(4), 191-198. [Wiley Online Library] [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

25. Evans, K. L., Newson, S. E., & Gaston, K. J. (2009). Habitat structure, not just habitat amount, influences bird species richness in urban areas. Global Change Biology, 15(12), 3056-3067. [Wiley Online Library] [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

26. Faeth, S. H., Warren, P. S., Shochat, E., & Marzluff, J. M. (2011). Urban biodiversity: Patterns and mechanisms. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 42, 139-163. [Annual Reviews] [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

27. Field, A. (2018). Discovering Statistics Using R. SAGE Publications.Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). (2019). Forestry in South Sudan: Challenges and Opportunities. [FAO [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

28. Fry, C. H., & Keith, S. (Eds.). (2004). The Birds of Africa, Vol. VII: Sparrows to Buntings. Academic Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

29. Gaston, A. J. (1975). Methods for Estimating Bird Populations. Journal of Bombay Natural History Society. [jbnrhs.org/methods-for-estimating-bird-populations] [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

30. Gaston, K. J. (2000). Global patterns in biodiversity. Nature, 405(6783), 220-227. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

31. Gaston, K. J. (2009). Urban ecology. Cambridge University Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

32. Gaston, K. J., Fuller, R. A., Loram, L. A., MacDonald, C., Power, S., & Dempsey, N. (2007). Urban domestic gardens (II): experimental tests of amenity and biodiversity functions. Biodiversity and Conservation, 16(5), 1327-1339. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

33. Githiru, M., & Njoroge, P. (2014). Urbanization and its impact on avian diversity in Nairobi, Kenya. African Journal of Ecology, 52(4), 485-492. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

34. Gotelli, N. J., & Colwell, R. K. (2001). Quantifying Biodiversity: Procedures and Pitfalls in theMeasurement and Comparison of Species Richness. Ecology Letters, 4(4), 379-391. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

35. Grimm, N. B., Foster, D., Groffman, P., Grove, J. M., Hopkinson, C. S., Nadelhoffer, K. J., ... & [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

36. Hahs, A. K., McDonnell, M. J., & Aronson, M. F. J. (2009). The ecology of urban landscapes: Current approaches and future directions. Landscape and Urban Planning, 91(2), 79-93. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

37. handbook: Research, management and policy. Blackwell Publishing. [Wiley Online Library] [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

38. Hockey, P. A. R., Dean, W. R. J., & Ryan, P. G. (Eds.). (2005). Roberts Birds of Southern Africa (7th ed.). John Voelcker Bird Book Fund. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

39. Juba City Council. (2025). [Juba City Council Official Website] [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

40. Kark, S., I. I. I. Levin, N., & K. I. N. G, A. (2007). The urban exploiter: A new concept for understanding the ecology of urban wildlife. Urban Ecosystems, 10(2), 119-129. [Springer Link] [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

41. Kenya. Journal of Urban Ecology, 1(1), juv001. [Oxford Academic] [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

42. Kociolek, A. V., Clevenger, A. P., St. Clair, C. C., & Proppe, D. S. (2011). Effects of road noise on wildlife: The case for mitigation. Environmental Management, 47(5), 845-857. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

43. Krebs, C. J. (1999). Ecological methodology. [Benjamin Cummings] [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

44. Lerman, S. B., & Warren, P. S. (2011). The conservation of urban birds: a review of the challenges and opportunities. Landscape and Urban Planning, 100(3), 313-322. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

45. Longcore, T., & Rich, C. (2004). Ecological light pollution. Frontiers in Ecology and the [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

46. Loss, S. R., Will, T., & Marra, P. P. (2013). The impact of free-ranging domestic cats on wildlife of the United States. Nature Communications, 4(1), 1396. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

47. Lowenstein, D. M., Neff, K. M., & La Sorte, F. A. (2014). The role of exotic plant species in urban bird communities. Urban Ecosystems, 17(4), 1011-1027. [Springer Link] [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

48. M. (2014). A global analysis of the impacts of urbanization on bird and plant diversi reveals key anthropogenic drivers. Proceedings: Biological Sciences. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

49. MacGregor-Fors, I., Escobar, F., Rueda-Hernández, R., Avendaño Reyes, S., Baena, L. M., Bandala, M. V., ... & Utrera-Barrillas, E. (2016). City green contributions: the role of urban greenspaces as reservoirs for biodiversity. Forests. [mdpi.com/forests] [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

50. Magurran, A. E. (2004). Measuring biological diversity. [Wiley Online Library] [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

51. Magurran, A. E. (2004). Measuring Biological Diversity. Blackwell Publishing. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

52. Maklakov, A. A., Immler, S., Gonzalez-Voyer, A., Rönn, J., & Kolm, N. (2011). Brains and the city: Big-brained passerine birds succeed in urban environments. Biology Letters. [royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2011.0400] [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

53. Marzluff, J. M. (2001). Worldwide urbanization and its effects on birds. In J. M. Marzluff, R. Bowman, & R. Donnelly (Eds.), Avian ecology and conservation in an urbanizing world (pp. 19-47). Kluwer Academic Publishers [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

54. Marzluff, J. M. (2001). Worldwide urbanization and its effects on bird communities. In Avian ecology and conservation in an urbanizing world (pp. 19-47). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

55. Marzluff, J. M. (2008). Urban ecology: An international perspective on the interaction between humans and nature. Urban Ecosystems, 11(1), 1-10. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

56. Maxwell, S. L., et al. (2016). Biodiversity: The ravages of guns, nets and bulldozers. Nature, 536(7615), 143-145. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

57. McDonnell, M. J., & Hahs, A. K. (2008). The urban-rural gradient: a new framework for understanding the ecology of cities. Urban Ecosystems, 11(3), 347-358. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

58. McKinney, M. L. (2008). Effects of urbanization on species richness: a review of plants and animals.Urban Ecosystems. [springer.com/urban-ecosystems] [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

59. Miller, J. R., & Hobbs, R. J. (2002). Conservation where people live and work: conservation science and urban ecology. Environmental Conservation, 29(2), 141-143. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

60. Ministry of Wildlife Conservation and Tourism, South Sudan (2025) [South Sudan Government Portal] [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

61. Muhanguzi, D., et al. (2018). Diversity of birds in urban and peri-urban areas of Kampala, Uganda. Biodiversity Science. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

62. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (2025) [NOAA Climate Data] [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

63. Ndang'ang'a, P. K., et al. (2016). Urban avian diversity in Nairobi, Kenya: The role of green spaces. Urban Ecology Journal. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

64. Newbold, T., et al. (2015). Global effects of land use on local terrestrial biodiversity. Nature, 520(7545), 45-50. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

65. Njoroge, P., & Githiru, M. (2014). Bird diversity and abundance in urban green spaces of Nairobi, [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

66. Odewumi, O. S., Hagher, I., & Agbelusi, E. A. (2015). Effect of Development on Avian Diversit and Abundance in Federal University of Technology. Akure, Southwest Nigeria. Applied Tropical Agriculture. [journals.futa.edu.ng/ata] [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

67. Ogada, D. L., Gichuki, C. M., & Njagi, E. N. M. (2016). Urban avian diversity in Nairobi, Kenya. African Journal of Ecology, 54(1), 35-42. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

68. Oke, O., & Olusegun, A. (2019). Urban biodiversity and bird species in Lagos, Nigeria. Environmental Science Journal. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

69. Ortega-Álvarez, R., & MacGregor-Fors, I. (2011). Spreading the word: the ecology of urban birds outside the United States, Canada, and Western Europe. The Auk. [academic.oup.com/auk] [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

70. Owusu, E. H., et al. (2015). Bird species richness and diversity in urban and suburban areas of Accra, Ghana. African Ecology Journal. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

71. Palacio, F. X. (2019). Urban exploiters have broader dietary niches than urban avoiders. Ibis. [onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ibi.12789] [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

72. Patankar, S., Jambhekar, R., Suryawanshi, K. R., & Nagendra, H. (2021). Which Traits Influence [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

73. Peters, D. P. C. (2008). The changing landscape: ecosystem responses to urbanization Environment. [esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1890/1540-9295(2008)6[264: [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

74. Pretorius, M., & Kok, O. (2017). Avian biodiversity in Johannesburg's urban landscape. Journal of Urban Ecology. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

75. Radchuk, V., van de Pol, M., & Charmantier, A. (2019). Adaptive responses of birds to climate [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

76. Rosenzweig, M. L. (1995). Species diversity in space and time. [Cambridge University Press] [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

77. S. C. (2023). Urbanization alters bird communities in tropical Southeast Asia: A case study from Myanmar. PMC NCBI NLM NIH.[pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10569181/] [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

78. Samia, D. S. M., Nakagawa, S., Nomura, F., Rangel, T. F., & Blumstein, D. T. (2015). Increased tolerance to humans among disturbed wildlife. Nature Communications. [nature.com/articles/ncomms9877] [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

79. Samways, M. J., & Steytler, N. S. (1996). South African urban biodiversity: a review. Biodiversity 1`and Conservation, 5(11), 1335-1349. [SpringerLink] [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

80. Sandström, U. G., Angelstam, P., & Mikusiński, G. (2006). Ecological diversity of birds in relation to the structure of urban green space. Landscape and Urban Pla [sciencedirect.com/landscape-urban-planning] Sciences, 345(1311), 101-118. [JSTOR] [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

81. Sekercioglu, C. H. (2012). Promoting community-based bird monitoring in developing countries. Biological Conservation, 151(1), 133-139. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

82. Seress, G., & Liker, A. (2015). The effect of urbanization on avian life-history traits: a review. Current Zoology, 61(4), 535-549. [Oxford Academic] [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

83. Seto, K. C., Fragkias, M., Guneralp, B., & Reilly, M. K. (2011). A meta-analysis of global urban land expansion. PLoS ONE. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

84. Seto, K. C., Parnell, S., & Elmqvist, T. (2013). A global map of urban expansion in the early 21st century. Environmental Research Letters, 8(3), 034046. [IOP Science] [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

85. Shannon, C. E. (1948). A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Bell System Technical Journal, 27(3), 379-423. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

86. Simpson, E. H. (1949). Measurement of Diversity. Nature, 163(4148), 688. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

87. Slabbekoorn, H., & Ripmeester, A. P. (2008). Bird song and anthropogenic noise: Implications for conservation. Molecular Ecology, 17(1), 72-83. [Wiley Online Library] [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

88. Smith, J. (2023). Urban Bird Ecology: A Guide to Research Methods. [Book]. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

89. Sol, D., Duncan, R. P., Blackburn, T. M., Cassey, P., & Lefebvre, L. (2005). Big brains, enhanced cognition, and response of birds to novel environments. Proceedings of the National [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

90. Sol, D., Gonzalez-Lagos, C., Moreira, D., Maspons, J., & Lapiedra, O. (2014). Urbanisation tolerance and the loss of avian diversity. Ecology Letters. [onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ele.12297] [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

91. South Sudan National Bureau of Statistics. (2025) [South Sudan NBS] [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

92. Suarez-Rubio, M., Bates, P. J. J., Aung, T., Hlaing, N. M., Oo, S. S. L., Htun, Y. K. Z., ... & Renner, [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

93. Sutherland, W. J. (2006). Ecological Census Techniques: A Handbook. Cambridge University Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

94. Sutherland, W. J., et al. (2013). Conservation Biology: A Primer for South Asia. John Wiley & Sons. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

95. Sutherland, W. J., Pullin, A. S., Dolman, R. J., & Knight, T. M. (2004). The conservation [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

96. This analysis not only enhances the understanding of bird diversity in Juba but also adds to the broader discourse on urban ecology in African cities, providing a foundation for future research. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

97. Tryjanowski, P., Møller, A. P., Morelli, F., Biaduń, W., Brauze, T., Ciach, M., ... & Goławski, A. (2016). Urbanization affects neophilia and risk-taking at bird-feeders. Scientific Reports. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

98. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). (2012). The Environmental Landscape of South Sudan: A Rapid Assessment. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

99. United Nations (2016). Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat).South Sudan Urban [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

100. United Nations,(2018). Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

101. White, F. (1983). The vegetation of Africa: a descriptive memoir to accompany the [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

102. World Bank. (2018). South Sudan Economic Update: Navigating the Path to Recovery. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

103. Yin, R. K. (2018). Case study research and applications: Design and methods. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

• Methane Emissions from Municipal Solid Waste - Case Study in Cai Rang District, Can Tho City, Vietnam
• Youth Activism, Intentional Integration of Policies to Raise Awareness on Climate Change Action among the Youth
• Breathing Spaces: Environmental & User Experience in Dhanmondi and Zigatola Multistoried Apartments, Dhaka, Bangladesh
• Effects of Solid Waste Disposal on Soil Quality in Makurdi Metropolis, Benue State, Nigeria
• Environmental Impact of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining in Borgu Local Government Area