Centrality of Gender in the Education System of Zimbabwe in the 21st Century.

Gender dynamics and gender trajectories and their impact on education systems have long been a verdant trope of scholarly inquiry and policy focus. The centrality of gender in shaping educational opportunities and outcomes, resource allocation, and societal perceptions cannot be overstated in pedagogical and learning spaces, particularly in the context of developing nations like Zimbabwe. The present article critically delves into the multifaceted and multipronged dimensions of gender, its formation and its pervasive influence on the Zimbabwean education system in the 21st century. The phenomenon of gender is explored through a sociological lens particularly rooted in the process of socialisation, revealing its construction as an unintended outcome of interactions between social actors of different sexes and societal structures. Gender is not merely a biological distinction but a complex interplay of socially assigned attributes, opportunities, and relationships that are learned through the process of socialization. Within the realm of formal education in Zimbabwe, gender plays a pivotal role in defining the allocation of resources, opportunities, and duties along gender lines. The article examines how patriarchal norms and ideologies have led to preferential treatment of boys over girls, perpetuating gender inequalities in areas such as access to education, resource allocation, and empowerment opportunities. In the same stride, the article investigates the role of language, hidden curricula, and societal norms in shaping gender perceptions and reinforcing stereotypes. It delves into how gender assumptions and expectations influence the educational experiences of boys and girls, impacting their academic performance, career choices, and prospects. By critically examining the centrality of gender in the Zimbabwean education system, the article aims to shed light on the complex dynamics at play and the need for concerted efforts to address gender inequalities and promote equal opportunities for all students, regardless of their gender.

Gender equality, masculinity, feminity, gender stereotypes, gender association, language and gender, hidden curriculum.

1. Abedi, Fatemeh, Fatemeh Bagherian, and Mohammad Ali Mazaheri. 2015. Investigating Young Iranian Women’s Understanding of Femininity Norms. Social Cognition 4: 84–96. (In Farsi) [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Alesina, Alberto, Paola Giuliano, and Nathan Nunn. 2010. On the Origins of Gender Roles: Women and the Plough. Cambridge: Harvard University. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. Berger, M. Wallis, B. and Watson, S. (1995). Constructing masculinity. London: Routledge. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. BERNARDI F. (2011), The Sociology of Social Structure 21st Century Sociology. SAGE Publications. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. Borgata, Edgar, and Rhonda Montgomery. 2000. Encyclopedia of Sociology. New York: Macmillan. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Budig, M. J. (2002). Male Advantage and the Gender Composition of Jobs: Who Rides the Glass Escalator? Social Problems, Vol. 49, No. 2, pp. 258-277. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. Coleman M 2001. Achievement against the Odds: the Female Secondary Head Teachers in England and Wales. Journal of School Leadership and Management, 21:75-100. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. Cornwall, A. and Lindisfarne, N. (1994). Dislocating Masculinity: Comparative Ethnographies. London: Routledge. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. Chabaya O, Rembe S, and Wadesango N, (2009). The Persistence of Gender inequality in Zimbabwe. South Africa Journal of Education, Vol.29:235-251. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. Christie P. (2008), Changing Schools in South Africa: Opening the Doors of Learning. Johannesburg: Heinemann [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. Dennis, M. R. and Kunkel, A. D. (2004). Perceptions of Men, Women, and CEOs: The Effects of Gender Identity, Social Behavior and Personality, Vol. 32, No. 2, pp. 166-168. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. Doreen m. (2001), Space, Place and Gender. Mineaolis: University of Minnesota Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Dorsey BJ 1996. Gender Inequalities in Education in the Southern African Region — Analysis of Intervention Strategies. Harare: UNESCO. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. Dudu W. Gonye J. Mareva R.and Sibanda J, (2008). The Gender Sensitivity of Zimbabwean Secondary School Textbooks; Department of Curriculum Studies, Great Zimbabwe University, Masvingo, Zimbabwe. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. Eagly, A. H., Wood,W. and Diekman, A. B. (2000). Social Role Theory of Sex Differences and Similarities: A Current Appraisal, in T. Eckes. and H. M. Trautner, (Eds.),The Developmental Social Psychology of Gender (123–174). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. Forseth, U. (2005). Gendered Bodies and Boundary Setting in the Airline Industry. In D. Morgan, B. Brandth, and E. Kvande, (Eds.), Gender, Body, Work. London: Ashgate. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. Gachukia, E. Women in Education. In Kabira Wanjiku et al. (2018). Changing the Mainstream: Celebrating Women’s resilience. Nairobi: University of Nairobi. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. Gaidzanwa R 1992. UNICEF Update: Women in Higher Posts. Harare: UNICEF. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. Genene, M. (2003). Bridge Building between Ethopia and Austria, Presentation Paper. International Institute of Rural Reconstruction, Addis Ababa. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. Gramsci A. (1994), Selection from the Prison Notebooks. London: Lawrence. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. Jafari, Aliakbar, and Pauline Maclaran. 2014. Escaping into theWorld of Make-up Routines in Iran. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

23. The Sociological Review 62: 359-382. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

24. Ferrant, Gaëlle, Luca Maria Pesando, and Keiko Nowacka. 2014. Unpaid Care Work: The Missing Link in the Analysis of Gender Gaps in labour Outcomes, OECD Development Centre. December. Available online: https://www.oecd.org/dev/development-gender/Unpaid_care_work.pdf (accessed on 18 June 2020). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

25. Franzway, S. Sharp, R. Mills, Julie E. and Gill, J. (2009). Engineering Diversity: The Problem of Gender Equity in Engineering. Frontiers: A Journal of Women’s Studies, Vol. 30, No. 1, pp. 89-106. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

26. Hartmann H, (2002). The unhappy marriage of Marxism and feminism: Towards a more progressive union. In: S Dale, F Island, S Ferguson, M MacDonald (Eds.): Politics, Patriarchy and Practice: Educators and the State. New York: The Falmer Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

27. Heckman, J. J. Stixrud, J. and Urzua, S. (2006). The Effects of Cognitive and Noncognitive Abilities on Labor Market Outcomes and Social Behavior. Journal of Labor Economics, Vol. 24, No. 3, pp. 411-482. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

28. Heilman, M. E. (2012), Gender Stereotypes and Workplace Bias. Research in Organizational Behavior, Vol. 32, pp. 113-135. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

29. Isazadegan, Ali, Javad Amani, and Javad Soltan Ahmadi. 2013. The Effect of Gendered Clichés on Femininity and Masculinity on Students’ Irrational Ideas and Perfectionism in Mahabad. Psychological Studies, AL Zahra University 9: 129–48. (In Farsi) [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

30. Kazemipour, S. 2004. Changes in Marriage Age in Iran and Factors Affecting It. Women’s Studies Journal 2: 103-124. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

31. Koenig, A. M. Eagly, A. H. Mitchell, A. A. and Ristikari, T. (2011). Are Leader Stereotype Masculine? A Meta-Analysis of Three Research Paradigms. Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 137, No. 4, pp. 616-642. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

32. Lefkowitz, E. S. and Zeldow, P. B. (2006), Masculinity and Femininity Predict Optimal Mental Health: A Belated Test of the Androgyny Hypothesis. Journal of Personality Assessment, Vol. 87, No. 1, pp. 95-101. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

33. Longwe S & Clarke R 1999, Towards Improved Leadership for Women’s Empowerment in Africa: Measuring Progress and Improved Strategies. Accra: Leadership Forum. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

34. Myers, K. (2007). Gender watch: …still watching. Stoke-On-Trent: Trentham [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

35. Mahlase S 1997. The Careers of Women Teachers Under Apartheid. Harare: SAPES. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

36. Mueller, G. and Plug, S. E. (2006). Estimating the Effect of Personality on Male-Female Earnings. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, Vol. 60, No. 1, pp. 3-22. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

37. Mintso, T. Opening address at Gender Strategy Workshop, 30-31 January, Johannesburg, 1997. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

38. National Gender Policy in Zimbabwe 2004. Harare: Government of Zimbabwe. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

39. Nziramasanga Commission 1999. Report of the Presidential Commission of Inquiry into Education and Training in Zimbabwe). Harare: Government Printers. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

40. Odaga A. and Heneveld W. (1995), Girls and schools in Sub-Saharan Africa: From analysis to action. World Bank Technical Paper Series, 298(14): 28-29, 49, 54. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

41. Ozkan, T. and Lajunen, T. (2005). Masculinity, Femininity, and the BEM Sex Role Inventory in Turkey. Sex Roles, Vol. 52, No. 1-2, pp. 103-110. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

42. Qarakhani, Masoumeh. 2007. Young Girls and Feminine Values (a study among secondary school students in Tehran). Journal of Cultural Studies and Communication 3: 73-100. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

43. Rudman, L. A. and Phelan, J. E. (2008). Backlash Effects for Disconfirming Gender Stereotypes in Organizations. In A. P. Brief, and B. M. Staw, (Eds.), Research in Organizational Behaviour (4: 61-79). New York, Elsevier. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

44. Schein, V. E. (2001). A Global Look at Psychological Barriers to Women’s Progress in Management. Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 57, No. 4, pp. 675-688. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

45. Talcott Parsons (1961), An Outline of the Social System p.36-47, from Edward A. Shils, Kaspar D. Naegle, and Jesse R. Pitts (editors). Theories of Society (New York: Simon & Schuster, The Free Press). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

46. UNESCO (2011). Priority gender equality guidelines. Paris: UNESCO Publications Board http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/BSP/GENDER/GE%20Guidelines%20December%202_FINAL.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

47. Unger, R and Crawford, M. (1992) Women and Gender: A Feminist Psychology. London: McGraw Hill. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

48. United Nations Children’s Emergency Fund. (2007). The state of the world’s children 2007: Executive summary: Women and children: the double dividend of gender equality. Retrieved from http://www.unicef.org/sowc07/report/full_report.php [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

49. United Nations Report (2010) The United Nations Today. United Nations of Public Information. New York. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

50. Vongas, J. G. and Al Hajj, R. (2015). The Evolution of Empathy and Women’s Precarious Leadership Appointments. Frontiers in Psychology, Vol. 6, pp. 1751-1765. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

51. Vaughan, R. (2016). Gender equality and education in the Sustainable Development Goals. UNESCO:Global Education Education Monitoringhttp://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002455/245574E.pdf http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002455/245574E.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

52. Wajcman, J. (2000). Feminism Facing Industrial relations in Britain. British Journal of Industrial Relations. Vol. 38, No.2, pp. 183-201. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

53. Wayne, J. H. and Cordeiro, B. L. (2003). Who is Good Organizational Citizen? Social Perception of Male and Female Employees Who Use Family Leave. Sex Roles, Vol. 49, No. 5-6 ,pp. 233-246. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

54. Williams, M. J. Levy Paluck, E. and Spender-Rodgers J. (2010). The Masculinity of Money: Automatic Stereotypes Predict Gender Differences in Estimated Wages. Psychology of Women Quarterly, Vol. 34, No. 1, pp. 7-10. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

55. Xiumei, Y. Meifang, W. and Qing, Z. (2012). Effects of Gender Stereotypes on Spontaneous Trait Inferences and the Moderating Role of Gender Schematicity: Evidence from Chinese Undergraduates. Social Cognition, Vol. 30, No. 2, pp. 220–231. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

56. Zokaei, Mohammad, Behjat Yazdkhasti, and Ali Yaghoobi. 2001. Typology of Masculinities in Ethnic Groups of Gilan Province. Social Science Quarterly 55: 93–130. (In Farsi) [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

• Assessment of the Role of Artificial Intelligence in Repositioning TVET for Economic Development in Nigeria
• Teachers’ Use of Assure Model Instructional Design on Learners’ Problem Solving Efficacy in Secondary Schools in Bungoma County, Kenya
• “E-Booksan Ang Kaalaman”: Development, Validation, and Utilization of Electronic Book in Academic Performance of Grade 9 Students in Social Studies
• Analyzing EFL University Students’ Academic Speaking Skills Through Self-Recorded Video Presentation
• Major Findings of The Study on Total Quality Management in Teachers’ Education Institutions (TEIs) In Assam – An Evaluative Study