Determinants of Biomass Fuel Use among Women in Rural Communities of Ekiti, Kwara and Edo States, Nigeria

Biomass fuel remains the principal source of household cooking energy in rural Nigeria despite increasing awareness of its adverse health and environmental consequences. This study investigated the determinants of biomass fuel use and examined the influence of socioeconomic status on the extent of biomass fuel utilization among women in rural communities of Ekiti, Kwara, and Edo States, Nigeria. A cross-sectional survey design was adopted, and data were collected from 371 women selected through a multistage stratified sampling technique using a structured questionnaire. Descriptive statistics, chi-square tests, binary logistic regression, and multinomial logistic regression were employed for data analysis. The findings revealed that firewood was the predominant biomass fuel, with 49.87% of respondents reporting extensive use, followed by charcoal (18.87%) and sawdust (7.01%).
Economic factors, particularly cost of living (70.4%), fuel subsidy removal (59.8%), and inflation (55.5%), emerged as the most influential determinants of biomass fuel choice, whereas cultural beliefs (8.1%) and perceived health benefits (1.6%) exerted relatively little influence. Chi-square analysis demonstrated significant associations between state of residence, educational attainment, annual income, and the extent of firewood use (p < 0.001). Binary logistic regression further indicated that women with NCE/ND qualifications were significantly less likely to rely extensively on firewood than women without formal education (OR = 0.01, p < 0.001), whereas those earning ₦500,001–₦1,000,000 annually exhibited significantly higher odds of extensive firewood use (OR = 6.30, p = 0.009). Multinomial logistic regression showed that higher income and tertiary education significantly increased the likelihood of using charcoal rather than firewood as the primary cooking fuel. The study concludes that household biomass fuel choice is driven predominantly by economic realities rather than cultural or health considerations. Policies aimed at reducing dependence on traditional biomass should therefore prioritize improving the affordability, accessibility, and availability of clean cooking technologies while promoting educational and income-enhancing interventions to facilitate a sustainable transition to cleaner household energy.

Biomass fuel; household energy; socioeconomic status; fuel choice; rural women; Nigeria.

1. Adebayo, T. S., Olanrewaju, V. O., & Uzun, B. (2025). Achieving access to clean fuels and technologies for cooking in rural and urban areas of India: a wavelet quantile-based approach. Energy Sources, Part B: Economics, Planning, and Policy, 20(1), 2479173. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Adamu, M. B., Adamu, H., Ade, S. M., & Akeh, G. I. (2020). Household Energy Consumption in Nigeria: A Review on the Applicability of the Energy Ladder Model. Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Management, 24(2). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. African Energy Commission. (2018). Africa energy database and statistical yearbook. AFREC. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. Ahmad, S., & De Oliveira, J. A. P. (2015). Fuel switching in slum and non-slum households in urban India. Journal of Cleaner Production, 94, 130-136. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. Amegah, A. K., & Jaakkola, J. J. K. (2016). Household air pollution and the sustainable development goals. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 94(3), 215–221. https://doi.org/10.2471/BLT.15.155812 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Arowolo, A. O., Ibrahim, S. B., Sanusi, M. M., Ayinde, A. F. O., &Sheleru, K. M. (2018). Households’ cooking energy preferences and determinants of transition to nonbiomass fuels in rural Nigeria. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa, 20(1), 126–143. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. Awan, A., Rahut, D. B., Sadiq, M., & Lorente, D. B. (2024). Drivers of clean fuel adoption and consumption intensity at the household level in Pakistan. Energy Efficiency, 17(3), 24. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. Ayodele-Olajire, D., Sesan, T., & Clifford, M. (2025). Evidence-Based rapid review of clean cooking: Lessons for Nigeria and other developing economies. Advances in Environmental and Engineering Research, 6(3), 1-23. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. Bawakyillenuo, S., Agbelie, I. S., Crentsil, A. O., & Danquah, S. K. (2025). Preferences of future cooking fuel types among urban and peri-urban households in Greater Accra Region of Ghana: Business-as-usual or sustainable pathways?. Energy Policy, 199, 114525. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. Cyriac, B. (2026). Advanced and Innovative Solutions for Sustainable and Affordable Cooking Energy. Sustainable, Affordable, Reliable and Modern Energy: A Road Map for India, 101-123. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. Derebe, B., Alemu, A., & Asfaw, Z. (2025). Fuelwood dependence and alternative energy sources in Ethiopia: a systematic review. Discover Sustainability, 6(1), 99. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. Gill-Wiehl, A., Gould, C. F., Jeuland, M., Pillarisetti, A., Pachauri, S., Shirley, R., ... & Kammen, D. (2026). Beyond access: clean energy use in low-income and middle-income countries. The Lancet Global Health, 14(4), e598-e611. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Habtamu, D., Abebe, B., & Seid, T. (2023). Health risk perceptions of household air pollution and perceived benefits of improved stoves among pregnant women in rural Ethiopia: a mixed method study. BMJ open, 13(8), e072328. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. Jiang, H., Imandojemu, K., bin Samsurijan, M. S., Idowu, O. O., & Xu, Q. (2025). Rural communities access to clean cooking Fuels, energy and technologies: socioeconomic implications and progress toward sustainable development. Problemy Ekorozwoju, 20(2), 124-140. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. Kadafa, A. A., Medugu, N. I., Dennis, K., Stephenc, & Medan, J. D. (2017). The health impact of fuel wood utilization on users in Yelwa Village, Nasarawa State, Nigeria. International Journal of Sciences: Basic and Applied Research, 24(6), 174–191. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. Kalak, T. (2023). Potential use of industrial biomass waste as a sustainable energy source in the future. Energies, 16(4), 1783. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. Karimu, A., Mensah, J. T., & Adu, G. (2016). Who adopts improved fuels and cookstoves in Ghana? Evidence from household energy consumption. Energy Economics, 55, 356–367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2016.02.009 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research methodology: Methods and techniques (2nd ed.). New Age International Publishers. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. Kravchenko, E., & Minkina, T. (2025). Persistent toxic substances emitted from biomass combustion and their health impacts. Ecological and Human Health Impacts of Contaminated Food and Environments, 59-77. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. Kumar, R. (2026). Validity of energy ladder hypothesis through types of residence: An ordered probit analysis for Indian households. The Indian Economic Journal, 74(1), 168-184. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. Kumar, S., Lohan, S. K., & Parihar, D. S. (2023). Biomass energy from agriculture: Conversion techniques and use. In Handbook of Energy Management in Agriculture (pp. 181-199). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

22. Malah-Kuete, F. Y. (2025). Understanding the clean cooking energy access gap among developing countries: Sub-Saharan Africa vs. other developing regions. Energy, 319, 135052. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

23. Mondal, A., Jangirh, R., & Mandal, T. K. (2025). Fuelling the Future: A Case-study on Traditional Cooking Fuels and Clean Energy Adoption in Rural north-Indian households. Energy and Climate Change, 100219. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

24. Mohammed, M. U., Danjuma, M. N., Ahmed, M., Bello, A. T., Haruna, M. T., & Salisu, K. (2026). Household Energy Use and Willingness to Adopt Homemade Biogas Technology among Rural Women in the Kano Region, Nigeria. African Journal of Earth and Environmental Science, 8(1), 495-507. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

25. Mulatu, A. B., Legese, S. A., Lamore, T. H., Gessesse, G. M., & Negash, W. A. (2025). The effects of traditional biomass energy utilization on socio-economic and environmental sustainability development of rural society in Ethiopia. Discover Energy, 5(1), 27. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

26. Okoye, B. N. (2026). Effects of firewood consumption on the biodiversity across the communities in Awka North Local Government Area. Journal of Arts, Environmental and Management Studies, 1(1), 1-13. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

27. Olanrewaju, F. O. (2019). Household energy consumption pattern and biomass dependence in Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Energy and Environmental Economics, 11(1), 45–58. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

28. Olasehinde, N., Ajayi, P., & Oloyede, O. (2026). Cooking fuel choices and household respiratory health in Nigeria. BMC Public Health, 26(1), 265. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

29. Oyediji, O. T., Onafurume, O. M., Ayeni, A. E., & Oyediji, M. O. (2026). Determinants of Household Cooking Fuel Choice in Rural Nigeria: Evidence from the General Household Survey. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

30. Ntiyakunze, M. S., & Stage, J. (2025). Fuel-stacking behaviour among households in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: The role of experience. Energy Strategy Reviews, 60, 101773. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

31. Pienaah, C. K., Amoak, D., & Baddianaah, I. (2026). Towards cleaner cooking: evaluating biomass savings, emissions reduction, and household perceptions of a passive Cooking Bag in Ghana. Green Technology, Resilience, and Sustainability, 6(1), 7. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

32. Salami, H., Okpara, K., Choochuay, C., Kuaanan, T., Akeju, D., & Shitta, M. (2025). Domestic energy consumption, theories, and policies: A systematic review. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 27(3), 5821-5867. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

33. Rahut, D. B., Mottaleb, K. A., Ali, A., & Aryal, J. (2017). The use and choice of cooking fuels in developing countries: Evidence from Bangladesh. Energy, 127, 292–302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2017.03.064 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

34. Sani, J., Eniolorunda, N. B., Ahmed, A., Usman, A. F., Arigbede, Y. A., Yusuf, R. O., ... & Odame, M. L. (2026). Regional inequalities in clean cooking fuel utilization among Nigerian households using the 2024 Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey. Discover Environment, 4(1), 63. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

35. Slater, J., Palmer, E., Yetano-Roche, M., Eleri, E., & Malley, C. S. (2025). An estimation of the health and climatic impacts of household biomass consumption across Nigeria in 2018. Environmental Research: Health, 3(2), 025007. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

36. Tereka, S., Pétursson, J. G., Byakagaba, P., & Ingólfsdóttir, A. H. (2025). Gender and socio-economic determinants of rural household adoption of clean energy practices in Uganda: Implications for energy transition pathways. Energy for Sustainable Development, 88, 101780. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

37. Wasswa, H., Semakula, H. M., Nseka, D., Aboda, C., Kayima, P., Nakato, J., ... & Nampereza, P. (2025). Statistical analysis of determinants of household clean cooking energy adoption in Uganda. Discover Energy, 5(1), 36. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

38. Wali, H. N., Dutta, T., Sani, B., & Isak, J. M. S. (2025). Impact of energy poverty on human capital: a cross-sectional analysis of the rural households in Kano State, Nigeria. Cogent Economics & Finance, 13(1), 2469785. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

39. Woolley, K. E., Dickinson-Craig, E., Bartington, S. E., Oludotun, T., Kirenga, B., Mariga, S. T., ... & Thomas, G. N. (2021). Effectiveness of interventions to reduce household air pollution from solid biomass fuels and improve maternal and child health outcomes in low-and middle-income countries: A systematic review protocol. Systematic Reviews, 10(1), 33. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

40. World Health Organization. (2021). WHO global air quality guidelines: Particulate matter (PM₂.₅ and PM₁₀), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide. World Health Organization. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

41. Yadav, A., Viswanathan, P. K., Mohan, R., Manoj, P., & Raman, R. (2026). Participatory rural insights into fuel stacking behavior: A case from rural Rajasthan. Sustainable Futures, 11, 101670. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

42. Zahra Naqvi, S. H., Shahzad, L., Haider Naqvi, S. L., Ayub, F., & Tanveer, R. (2025). Assessing the health consequences of indoor air pollution from biomass fuel combustion on pediatric populations in rural communities of Pakistan. International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 35(3), 620-633. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

43. Zoungrana, T. D., & Sawadogo, W. A. M. (2025). Socioeconomic determinants of household cooking fuel choice in West Africa: emphasizing the role of gender, education and wealth. Energy Sources, Part B: Economics, Planning, and Policy, 20(1), 2525576. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

• Tribal Child Nutrition and Health in District of Sundargarh: A Public Health Review of ICDS Intervention
• Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices Towards Prostate Cancer Screening Amongst Men Aged 40-60 Years in The Buea Health District: A Cross-Sectional Study
• Compliance with JCI Protocols: A Focus on Employee Safety
• Influence and Involvement of Teachers in Menstrual Hygiene Management of Female Secondary School Students in Kogi State, Nigeria
• A Critical Evaluation of Ayushman Bharat Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana in Bihar