Developmental Dyslexia: From Cognitive and Neural Mechanisms to Diagnosis, Intervention, and Artificial Intelligence: A Narrative Review

Developmental dyslexia (DD) is a complex and heterogeneous neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by persistent difficulties in accurate and fluent reading, decoding, and spelling; the wide individual variation in the severity and manifestation of these problems indicates that it cannot be explained by a single cause. The aim of this narrative review was to synthesize existing evidence regarding cognitive mechanisms, genetic factors, brain networks, diagnostic methods, educational and rehabilitative interventions, and artificial intelligence applications in the context of DD. A literature search was conducted across PubMed, Web of Science Core Collection, and Google Scholar; following the removal of duplicates and the screening of titles, abstracts, and full texts by three authors, 56 articles were included in the final analysis. Findings indicate that phonological processing continues to play a significant role in DD, although factors such as rapid naming, attention, working memory, skill automatization, and visual processing also contribute to individual differences. Genetic evidence supports the polygenic nature of the disorder, and neuroimaging studies have revealed differences in the organization and connectivity of networks involved in reading, language, attention, and visual processing. Regarding diagnosis, the direct assessment of reading skills—combined with a review of developmental and educational history and the evaluation of linguistic and cognitive abilities—remains critically important, whereas methods such as electroencephalography (EEG), eye-tracking, and machine learning primarily serve as complementary tools. Direct and structured reading instruction remains the most vital intervention, while digital technologies and innovative methods have yielded promising yet heterogeneous results. Overall, DD can best be examined within a multilevel framework that considers the interaction among cognitive, genetic, neurological, and environmental factors.

Dyslexia; Neurodevelopmental Disorder; Brain Networks; Genetics; Diagnosis

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