Language Learning Strategies, Language Attitude, and Language Exposure: A Structural Equation Modeling Study of Motivation in Language Learning

This study examined the levels of language learning strategies, language attitude, and language exposure among senior high school students and analyzed their relationships with motivation in language learning using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). A quantitative, descriptive–correlational research design was employed. Results indicated that language learning strategies, language attitude, language exposure, and motivation in language learning were all at a very high level. Pearson correlation analysis revealed significant relationships among the variables and students’ motivation in language learning (p < .01).
Regression analysis further showed that language learning strategies and language exposure were significantly associated with students’ motivation in language learning. Attitude toward language also demonstrated a statistically significant relationship with motivation, although the direction of the relationship varied across model estimations. Three alternative structural models were tested, and Model 3 demonstrated the most acceptable goodness-of-fit indices based on established SEM criteria, including CMIN/DF, GFI, CFI, NFI, TLI, RMSEA, and P-close.
The findings suggest that students’ motivation in language learning is related to the interaction of cognitive, affective, and environmental factors, particularly strategy use, language attitudes, and exposure to language in different contexts. These results highlight the importance of providing learners with opportunities to apply effective language learning strategies, develop positive attitudes toward language learning, and experience meaningful exposure to language both inside and outside the classroom.

Language Learning Strategies; Language Attitude; Language Exposure; Language Learning Motivation; Structural Equation Modeling (SEM); Education

1. Al-Hoorie, A. H., & MacIntyre, P. D. (2020). Language motivation theory: New directions. Multilingual Matters. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Al-Hoorie, A. H., & Szabó, F. (2022). Motivation and language learning: A meta-analysis of the L2 motivational self system. Modern Language Journal, 106(1), 47–72. https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12736 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. Botes, E., Dewaele, J. M., & Greiff, S. (2022). The development and validation of the short form of the foreign language classroom anxiety scale. Modern Language Journal, 106(2), 350–372. https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12764 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. Cawagdan-Cuarto, H., & Rivera, E. (2018). Influence of language learning strategies on the English proficiency test performance of college students. JPAIR Multidisciplinary Research, 32(1), 149–163. https://doi.org/10.7719/jpair.v32i1.580 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. Derakhshan, A., Fathi, J., & Pawlak, M. (2023). The interplay between teacher support, learner engagement, and motivation in language learning. Language Teaching Research, 27(2), 457–478. https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688211031960 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Dörnyei, Z. (2001). Motivational strategies in the language classroom. Cambridge University Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. Dörnyei, Z., & Ushioda, E. (2013). Teaching and researching motivation (2nd ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315833750 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. Gardner, R. C., & Lambert, W. E. (1972). Attitudes and motivation in second language learning. Newbury House. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. Griffiths, C., & Oxford, R. L. (2021). Language learning strategies: Theoretical foundations and contemporary perspectives. System, 96, 102423. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. Horwitz, E. K., Horwitz, M. B., & Cope, J. (1986). Foreign language classroom anxiety. The Modern Language Journal, 70(2), 125–132. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (1999). Learning together and alone: Cooperative, competitive, and individualistic learning (5th ed.). Allyn & Bacon. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. Lamb, M., & Arisandy, F. (2020). The impact of online learning environments on language learning motivation. System, 91, 102273. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Lee, J. S., & Drajati, N. A. (2023). The role of digital learning environments in shaping language learning motivation. System, 111, 102945. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2022.102945 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. MacIntyre, P. D., & Gardner, R. C. (1994). The subtle effects of language anxiety on cognitive processing in the second language. Language Learning, 44(2), 283–305. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. Magno, C. F., Hilto, M. E., Lajom, J. E., Regodon, J. A., & Buangan, K. (2009). Assessing the level of English language exposure of Taiwanese college students in Taiwan and the Philippines. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. Marefat, F., & Pakzadian, M. (2017). Attitudes toward English as an international language (EIL): Development and validation of a new model and questionnaire. Iranian Journal of Applied Language Studies, 9(1), 127–154. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. Noels, K. A., Pelletier, L. G., Clément, R., & Vallerand, R. J. (2000). Why are you learning a second language? Motivational orientations and self-determination theory. Language Learning, 50(1), 57–85. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. Oxford, R. L. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. Newbury House. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. Oxford, R. L. (2017). Teaching and researching language learning strategies. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315719146 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. Pelayre, G. N., & Napil, M. C. (2025). Exposure, language learning, and reading strategies: A structural model for grammatical competence. Asian Journal of Advanced Research and Reports, 19(5), 278–293. https://doi.org/10.9734/ajarr/2025/v19i51018 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. Peters, E., & Webb, S. (2021). Incidental vocabulary acquisition through media exposure. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 43(1), 1–27. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

22. Schreiber, J. B., Nora, A., Stage, F. K., Barlow, E. A., & King, J. (2006). Reporting structural equation modeling and confirmatory factor analysis results: A review. The Journal of Educational Research, 99(6), 323–338. https://doi.org/10.3200/JOER.99.6.323-338 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

23. Teimouri, Y., Goetze, J., & Plonsky, L. (2022). Second language anxiety and achievement: A meta-analysis. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 44(2), 363–387. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263121000311 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

24. Ullman, J. B., & Bentler, P. M. (2012). Structural equation modeling. In I. B. Weiner (Ed.), Handbook of psychology (2nd ed., pp. 661–690). Wiley. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

25. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

26. Zhang, L. J., & Zhang, D. (2022). Language learning strategies and self-regulated learning: A systematic review. System, 105, 102720. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2022.102720 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

• Assessment of the Role of Artificial Intelligence in Repositioning TVET for Economic Development in Nigeria
• Teachers’ Use of Assure Model Instructional Design on Learners’ Problem Solving Efficacy in Secondary Schools in Bungoma County, Kenya
• “E-Booksan Ang Kaalaman”: Development, Validation, and Utilization of Electronic Book in Academic Performance of Grade 9 Students in Social Studies
• Analyzing EFL University Students’ Academic Speaking Skills Through Self-Recorded Video Presentation
• Major Findings of The Study on Total Quality Management in Teachers’ Education Institutions (TEIs) In Assam – An Evaluative Study