Life Cycle Emission Analysis and Case Specific Mitigation Strategies for Hostel Buildings in the Lower Himalayan Region.

Buildings account for a significant share of global carbon emissions, yet comprehensive lifecycle frameworks for assessing their full environmental impact remain limited in the Indian context. The study evaluates the environmental impact of a residential building in the lower region of north India. This case specific framework integrates life cycle assessment (LCA) in terms of operational energy analysis, embodied energy accounting, and carbon emission estimation. A detailed material and energy inventory was compiled, with embodied energy coefficients and emission factors sourced from peer-reviewed literature. Results indicate that the operational stage dominates the building's carbon profile, contributing 73% of total lifecycle emissions driven primarily by occupant metabolic CO₂ and electricity consumption. The total carbon footprint is estimated at 12.77 million kg CO₂ equivalent, with brick and reinforced cement concrete identified as the most energy and emission intensive materials. Three mitigation strategies were evaluated: replacing grid electricity with photovoltaic panels reduces electricity related emissions by 96%; substituting LPG with kitchen waste biogas achieves a 15.6% reduction in cooking emissions; and plantation of 90 mature trees enables full carbon sequestration. Collectively, these measures reduce the building's lifetime emissions by approximately 38%. The proposed framework offers a replicable, case specific approach to carbon assessment and mitigation planning, applicable to other residential buildings seeking to align with sustainable construction goals.

emissions, embodied energy, hostel building

1. Adeyeye, D., Olusola, A., Orimoloye, I. R., Singh, S. K., & Adelabu, S. (2023). Carbon footprint assessment and mitigation scenarios: A benchmark model for GHG indicator in a Nigerian University. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 25(2), 1361–1382. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-021-02098-1 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Almusaed, A., Yitmen, I., Myhren, J. A., & Almssad, A. (2024). Assessing the Impact of Recycled Building Materials on Environmental Sustainability and Energy Efficiency: A Comprehensive Framework for Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions. Buildings, 14(6), 1566. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14061566 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. Ardente, F., Beccali, M., Cellura, M., & Mistretta, M. (2008). Building energy performance: A LCA case study of kenaf-fibres insulation board. Energy and Buildings, 40(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2006.12.009 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. Arena, A. P., & de Rosa, C. (2023). Life cycle assessment of energy and environmental implications of the implementation of conservation technologies in school buildings in Mendoza—Argentina. Building and Environment, 38, 359–368. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. Asdrubali, F., Baldassarri, C., & Fthenakis, V. (2013). Life cycle analysis in the construction sector: Guiding the optimization of conventional Italian buildings. Energy and Buildings, 64, 73–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2013.04.018 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Ashutosh Pathak, Harshad Patil, Sandesh Patil, Varun Patil, & Prof. Firdos Khan. (2022). A Review on Bio Methane Production using Kitchen Waste. International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT), 11(4). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. B. Surekha, M. N. HEGDE, & K. S. JAGADISH. (2016). ENERGY AND BUILDING MATERIALS. IASET, 5(5), 13–24. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. Baste, P., & Thakare, Ar. H. (2023). Optimization for Carbon Footprint in an Institutional Campus. Ecology, Environment and Conservation, 29(01), 175–181. https://doi.org/10.53550/eec.2023.v29i01.028 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. Ben-Alon, L., Loftness, V., Harries, K. A., & Cochran Hameen, E. (2021). Life cycle assessment (LCA) of natural vs conventional building assemblies. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 144, 110951. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.110951 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. Bhawan, S., & Puram, R. K. (2025). Central Electricity Authority: CO2 Baseline Database for the Indian Power Sector. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. Biogas Programme. (2022). [MINISTRY OF NEW AND RENEWABLE ENERGY]. https://mnre.gov.in/en/bio-gas/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. Bisht, A. S., & Sharma, T. (2025). Indian power sector decarbonization: Net-zero by 2050 or 2070. Energy for Sustainable Development, 85, 101637. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2024.101637 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Blengini, G. A. (2009). Life cycle of buildings, demolition and recycling potential: A case study in Turin, Italy. Building and Environment, 44(2), 319–330. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2008.03.007 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. Brandon, P. S., & Lombardi, P. L. (2011). Evaluating sustainable development in the built environment (2. ed). Wiley-Blackwell. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. Chau, C. K., Leung, T. M., & Ng, W. Y. (2015). A review on Life Cycle Assessment, Life Cycle Energy Assessment and Life Cycle Carbon Emissions Assessment on buildings. Applied Energy, 143, 395–413. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.01.023 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. Chen, X., Shi, P., & Wang, H. (2025). Life cycle environmental impact assessment of bridges based on comparison of different construction schemes. Environment, Development and Sustainability. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-024-05895-6 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. Chou, J.-S., & Yeh, K.-C. (2015). Life cycle carbon dioxide emissions simulation and environmental cost analysis for building construction. Journal of Cleaner Production, 101, 137–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.04.001 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. Dash A. (2015). Food for thought. Insight: IIT Bombay’s Student Media Body. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. Ding, W., Cai, Z., & Wang, D. (2004). Preliminary budget of methane emissions from natural wetlands in China. Atmospheric Environment, 38(5), 751–759. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2003.10.016 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. Dong, W., Kong, F., He, T., Liu, M., Wu, J., & Zhang, L. (2024). Enhancing performance and reducing carbon emissions in sprayed concrete using green silica-lignin admixture and recycled aggregates. Low-Carbon Materials and Green Construction, 2(1), 28. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44242-024-00055-5 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. Dong, Y., Liu, P., & Hossain, Md. U. (2023). Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment of Building Construction: A Case Study in China. Sustainability, 15(9), 7655. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15097655 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

22. Eggleston, H. S. (Ed.). (2006). 2006 IPCC guidelines for national greenhouse gas inventories. Institute for Global Environmental Strategies. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

23. Endo, Y., & Takamura, H. (2021). Evaluation of Life-Cycle Assessment Analysis: Application to Restoration Projects and New Construction in Alpine Climate, Japan. Sustainability, 13(7), 3608. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13073608 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

24. Fan, F., Zhu, S., Huang, J., Xu, X., & Xu, F. (2025). Life cycle assessment of carbon emissions and reduction potential exploration of new building complexes in Universities: A case study in China. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 30(4), 621–637. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-025-02429-8 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

25. Figueiredo, K., Hammad, A. W. A., & Haddad, A. N. (2024). Life cycle sustainability assessment applied in the built environment. In Materials Selection for Sustainability in the Built Environment (pp. 243–265). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-95122-7.00012-5 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

26. Goh, C. S., Chong, H.-Y., Jack, L., & Mohd Faris, A. F. (2020). Revisiting triple bottom line within the context of sustainable construction: A systematic review. Journal of Cleaner Production, 252(10), 119884. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.119884 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

27. Gore, C., & Gore, E. (1999). Knowledge management: The way forward. Total Quality Management, 10(4–5), 554–560. https://doi.org/10.1080/0954412997523 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

28. Hammond, G. P., & Jones, C. I. (2008). Embodied energy and carbon in construction materials. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Energy, 161(2), 87–98. https://doi.org/10.1680/ener.2008.161.2.87 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

29. Hansen, R. N., Rasmussen, F. N., Ryberg, M., & Birgisdóttir, H. (2023). A systematic review of consequential LCA on buildings: The perspectives and challenges of applications and inventory modelling. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 28(2), 131–145. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-022-02126-w [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

30. Hao, J. L., Cheng, B., Lu, W., Xu, J., Wang, J., Bu, W., & Guo, Z. (2020). Carbon emission reduction in prefabrication construction during materialization stage: A BIM-based life-cycle assessment approach. Science of The Total Environment, 723, 137870. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.137870 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

31. Hasik, V., Escott, E., Bates, R., Carlisle, S., Faircloth, B., & Bilec, M. M. (2019). Comparative whole-building life cycle assessment of renovation and new construction. Building and Environment, 161, 106218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2019.106218 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

32. India CO2 emissions. (2024). [Worldometer]. https://www.worldometers.info/co2-emissions/india-co2-emissions/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

33. International Energy Agency. (2025). [Https://www.iea.org/countries/india/electricity]. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

34. Ioppolo, G., Cucurachi, S., Salomone, R., Shi, L., & Yigitcanlar, T. (2019). Integrating strategic environmental assessment and material flow accounting: A novel approach for moving towards sustainable urban futures. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 24(7), 1269–1284. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-018-1494-0 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

35. ISO. (2006). ISO 14040 (2006). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

36. Jackson, T. (2009). Prosperity without Growth (0 edn). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781849774338 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

37. Kibert, C. J. (2016). Sustainable Construction: Green Building Design and Delivery (1st ed). John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

38. Kofoworola, O. F., & Gheewala, S. H. (2008). Environmental life cycle assessment of a commercial office building in Thailand. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 13(6), 498–511. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-008-0012-1 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

39. Köppen-Geiger Climate Classification. (2010). In B. Warf, Encyclopedia of Geography. SAGE Publications, Inc. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412939591.n671 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

40. Kumar, P., Upadhyay, E., Kannan, K., & Yadav, A. (2024). Evaluation of cooking practices in India to achieve SDGs 7.1.2. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, 136, 103774. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2024.103774 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

41. Lahmouri, M., Drewes, J. E., & Gondhalekar, D. (2019). Analysis of Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Centralized and Decentralized Water Reclamation with Resource Recovery Strategies in Leh Town, Ladakh, India, and Potential for Their Reduction in Context of the Water–Energy–Food Nexus. Water, 11(5), 906. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11050906 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

42. Li, X., Xiao, J., Zhu, L., Zhu, D., Song, X., Liu, Y., & Hua, W. (2025). Assessing carbon emissions of the innovative renovation project of Yihe Bridge on Beijing Road. Low-Carbon Materials and Green Construction, 3(1), 9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44242-025-00071-z [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

43. Liang, S., Gu, H., Bergman, R., & Kelley, S. S. (2020). Comparative life-cycle assessment of a mass timber building and concrete alternative. Wood and Fiber Science, 52(2), 217–229. https://doi.org/10.22382/wfs-2020-019 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

44. Liang, Y., Li, C., Liu, Z., Wang, X., Zeng, F., Yuan, X., & Pan, Y. (2023). Decarbonization potentials of the embodied energy use and operational process in buildings: A review from the life-cycle perspective. Heliyon, 9(10), e20190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e20190 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

45. Lovelock, J. (2009). The vanishing face of gaia: A final warning. Basic Books. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

46. Mathumitha, R., Rathika, P., & Manimala, K. (2024). Intelligent deep learning techniques for energy consumption forecasting in smart buildings: A review. Artificial Intelligence Review, 57(2), 35. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10462-023-10660-8 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

47. Medha. (2020). A Study on Energy use in the Water Supply and Treatment in Dehradun, India. Roorkee Water Conclave 2020. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

48. Milić, I., & Bleiziffer, J. (2024). Life cycle assessment of the sustainability of bridges: Methodology, literature review and knowledge gaps. Frontiers in Built Environment, 10, 1410798. https://doi.org/10.3389/fbuil.2024.1410798 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

49. Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change. (2023, August 3). Net zero emissions target [Gov.in]. https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1945472 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

50. Ministry of New and Renewable Energy. (2024). [Grid Connected Rooftop Solar Programme. Government of India.]. https://mnre.gov.in/en/grid-connected-solar-rooftop-programme/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

51. Moncaster, A. M., & Song, J.-Y. (2012). A comparative review of existing data and methodologies for calculating embodied energy and carbon of buildings. International Journal of Sustainable Building Technology and Urban Development, 3(1), 26–36. https://doi.org/10.1080/2093761x.2012.673915 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

52. Österbring, M., Mata, É., Thuvander, L., & Wallbaum, H. (2019). Explorative life-cycle assessment of renovating existing urban housing-stocks. Building and Environment, 165, 106391. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2019.106391 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

53. Pant, H., & Tewari, A. (2013). Carbon Sequestration Potential of Chir Pine (Pinus roxburghii. Sarg) Forest on Two Contrasting Aspects in Kumaun Central Himalaya between 1650-1860 m Elevation. Applied Ecology and Environmental Sciences, 1(6), 110–112. https://doi.org/10.12691/aees-1-6-2 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

54. Petrovic, B., Myhren, J. A., Zhang, X., Wallhagen, M., & Eriksson, O. (2019). Life Cycle Assessment of Building Materials for a Single-family House in Sweden. Energy Procedia, 158, 3547–3552. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2019.01.913 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

55. Rabani, M., Madessa, H. B., Ljungström, M., Aamodt, L., Løvvold, S., & Nord, N. (2021). Life cycle analysis of GHG emissions from the building retrofitting: The case of a Norwegian office building. Building and Environment, 204, 108159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2021.108159 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

56. Rajendran, K., Aslanzadeh, S., & Taherzadeh, M. J. (2012). Household Biogas Digesters—A Review. Energies, 5(8), 2911–2942. https://doi.org/10.3390/en5082911 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

57. Rees, W. E. (2009). The ecological crisis and self-delusion: Implications for the building sector. Building Research & Information, 37(3), 300–311. https://doi.org/10.1080/09613210902781470 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

58. Rezaei, F., Bulle, C., & Lesage, P. (2019). Integrating building information modeling and life cycle assessment in the early and detailed building design stages. Building and Environment, 153, 158–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2019.01.034 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

59. Röck, M., Saade, M. R. M., Balouktsi, M., Rasmussen, F. N., Birgisdottir, H., Frischknecht, R., Habert, G., Lützkendorf, T., & Passer, A. (2020). Embodied GHG emissions of buildings – The hidden challenge for effective climate change mitigation. Applied Energy, 258, 114107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.114107 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

60. Santos, R., Costa, A. A., Silvestre, J. D., Vandenbergh, T., & Pyl, L. (2020). BIM-based life cycle assessment and life cycle costing of an office building in Western Europe. Building and Environment, 169, 106568. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2019.106568 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

61. Schneider-Marin, P., & Lang, W. (2020). Environmental costs of buildings: Monetary valuation of ecological indicators for the building industry. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 25(9), 1637–1659. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-020-01784-y [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

62. Shahana Y. Janjua, Prabir K. Sarker, & Wahidul K. Biswas. (2019). A Review of Residential Buildings’ Sustainability Performance Using a Life Cycle Assessment Approach. Journal of Sustainability Research, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.20900/jsr20190006 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

63. Shams, S., Mahmud, K., & Amin, Md. A. (2011). A comparative analysis of building materials for sustainable construction with emphasis on CO<SUB align="right">2 reduction. International Journal of Environment and Sustainable Development, 10(4), 364. https://doi.org/10.1504/ijesd.2011.047767 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

64. Singh*, R. R., Kumar, R. V., & Durai, T. N. P. (2019). Assessment of Embodied Energy for an Institutional Building. International Journal of Recent Technology and Engineering (IJRTE), 8(3), 3151–3158. https://doi.org/10.35940/ijrte.c4657.098319 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

65. Torabi, M., & Evins, R. (2024). Towards net-zero carbon buildings: Investigating the impact of early-stage structure design on building embodied carbon. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-024-02287-w [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

66. Ullah, Z., Nasir, A. R., Alqahtani, F. K., Ullah, F., Thaheem, M. J., & Maqsoom, A. (2023). Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment of Healthcare Buildings: A Policy Framework. Buildings, 13(9), 2143. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13092143 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

67. UNFCCC. (2010). https://unfccc.int/resource/cd_roms/na1/ghg_inventories/english/8_glossary/Glossary.htm [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

68. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). (2021). Global Status Report for Buildings and Construction: Towards a Zero-emission, Efficient and Resilient Buildings and Construction Sector. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

69. Varun, Sharma, A., Shree, V., & Nautiyal, H. (2012). Life cycle environmental assessment of an educational building in Northern India: A case study. Sustainable Cities and Society, 4, 22–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2012.03.002 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

70. Wang, J., Wu, H., Duan, H., Zillante, G., Zuo, J., & Yuan, H. (2018). Combining life cycle assessment and Building Information Modelling to account for carbon emission of building demolition waste: A case study. Journal of Cleaner Production, 172, 3154–3166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.11.087 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

71. Wang, Y. (2023). Exploring the importance of sustainability in the construction industry. Applied and Computational Engineering, 9(1), 312–318. https://doi.org/10.54254/2755-2721/9/20230011 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

72. World Bank: Washington, DC, USA. (2021). World Bank. Total Greenhouse Gas Emissions (kt of CO2 Equivalent). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

73. Yang, X., Hu, M., Wu, J., & Zhao, B. (2018). Building-information-modeling enabled life cycle assessment, a case study on carbon footprint accounting for a residential building in China. Journal of Cleaner Production, 183, 729–743. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.02.070 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

74. Zuo, J., & Zhao, Z.-Y. (2014). Green building research–current status and future agenda: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 30, 271–281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.10.021 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

• Re-Validating the Uniqueness of Urban Morphology of the Shekhawati Region Through Reconnaissance Using Hotspot Analysis
• Golden Ages and Emerging Needs: Rethinking old Age Homes as Self Sustained Communities
• The Missing Link between Colonial Jack Arch Roofing and Indigenous Construction Practices in India
• Archiving Kolakopa - A Study on the Present Condition and the Architectural Features of an Evanescing Historic Settlement.
• Analysing Vendor Lock-In in Serverless Architectures