The Relationship Between Parental Migration and Substance Use Patterns Among Youths in Mufakose, Zimbabwe

The Relationship Between Parental Migration and Substance Use Patterns among Youths in Mufakose, Zimbabwe

Melody Mhishi

Julius Nyerere School of Social Sciences, Great Zimbabwe University, Masvingo, Zimbabwe

DOI: https://doi.org/10.51584/IJRIAS.2025.100800164

Received: 27 August 2025; Accepted: 04 September 2025; Published: 03 October 2025

ABSTRACT

Parental migration is a widespread phenomenon globally and among Zimbabweans due to various socioeconomic push and pull factors. While remittances sent by migrant parents support their children financially, the absence of parents also takes a psychological toll on adolescents left behind. Existing literature has linked parental absence to increased risk of mental health issues, loneliness, and substance use difficulties among youth. However, there remains a need to understand these dynamics through a Zimbabwean cultural lens. The aim of the study was to examine the relationship between parental migration and substance use. This qualitative study examined the experiences of five youth adults aged 18-24 residing in Mufakose, Harare, Zimbabwe whose parents migrated abroad.  The ontological framework was Erikson’s psychosocial theory which takes an organismic view of human development and the guiding epistemology was Bandura’s theory, which stresses the role of observational learning, modelling, and environmental reinforcement in acquiring knowledge and skills. A phenomenological approach was used to capture the essence of the lived experiences of participants. This research concludes that tailored community support programs are needed to foster resilience in Zimbabwean adolescents facing parental absence. From the findings, recommendations for policy, education, practice and future research were made.

Keywords: Adolescence, parental migration, substance use, abandonment, diaspora orphans

INTRODUCTION

According to Kumpikaitė-Valiūnienė et al. (2021 :203), a migrant is “any person who changes his or her country of usual residence”. Internal migration, or movement within a country, and international migration, or movement between countries, are the two types of migration. Parental migration was defined for the sake of this study as the relocation of an adolescent’s mother, father, or both to a new location in search of employment or better living conditions.

The World Migration Report, released in 2020 by the International Organisation for Migration (IOM), highlights the fact that migration is a worldwide phenomenon that impacts almost all nations. The paper emphasises how social networks, economic opportunity, conflict, and environmental changes have all contributed to the evolution of migration patterns. Nowadays, the majority of migrants are parents, and they typically travel from developing to industrialised nations. Migration has a historical context in Zimbabwe and it originated around the 1850s, a time long before colonial borders were drawn (Crush & Tawodzera, 2016).

The absence of parental figures due to migration not only fractures the family unit, but it also exposes young people to a variety of obstacles that can predispose them to substance abuse and addictive behaviour. This parent-child separation can have a significant impact on the emotional, psychological, and social development of the youth who remain behind.

It has been estimated that 3.4 million Zimbabweans, which represent a quarter of the country’s population, have left Zimbabwe (Idemudia., Williams, & Wyatt,2013). According to Shaw (2008:13), this has created a social phenomenon known as “Diaspora orphans.” These are children of adults working outside Zimbabwe who are left in the care of only one parent or even relatives and acquaintances. Many of these youngsters face significant levels of stress at home, as well as terrible living situations. Although diaspora denotes dispersion and scattering (Cohen,2022 and migration refers to relocating to another country (Karski,2022), both phrases allude to leaving one country for another, and, for the purpose of this study, the words will be used interchangeably.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the complex interplay of parental absence, social pressures, and individual vulnerabilities that lead to the incidence of substance use among Mufakose adolescents. Identifying these underlying determinants can provide the groundwork for targeted interventions, policy suggestions, and community-based efforts aimed at protecting the well-being and future chances of young people in the face of familial disruptions induced by migration.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The research was premised on the following research questions:

What specific challenges do adolescents face in the absence of their parents due to migration?

How do adolescents in Mufakose, Harare describe and make meaning of their lived experiences and perspectives when their parents have migrated?

LITERATURE REVIEW

Adolescence is a developmental stage that is associated with a number of important changes and developments that people go through, such as changes in their social, psychological, emotional, and cognitive aspects. Being young and going through the more difficult and drawn-out transition to maturity that young people in late modern societies undergo (Furlong et al., 2006) means that young people must learn new skills, adjust to a variety of changes, and overcome obstacles.

Parental migration refers to the movement of parents across borders or within a country to seek work, often leaving children behind in the care of grandparents, other relatives or alone (Sánchez et al., 2020). Parental migration is a growing global phenomenon shaped by economic forces like poverty, lack of local jobs, and wage gaps between origin and destination regions (Biao & Ruenkaew, 2020). In countries like the Philippines, Indonesia and Mexico, large numbers of parents, especially mothers, migrate to wealthier nations for care work, domestic service, agriculture or factory jobs (Asis, 2020; Levitt et al., 2020).

The effects of parental migration on children left behind in the context of international migration have been extensively studied (Lee & Koro-Ljungberg, 2020). According to theoretical models, there are primarily three kinds of effects (Ortiz-Ospina & Beltekian, 2020). First, migration may have a direct negative effect on educational outcomes through family disruption (Fair et al., 2020).. Three elements embody the disruptive effect. On the one hand, when a parent is absent, children receive less parental supervision and attention, which lowers their academic performance (Lahaie et al., 2009 as quoted in Fair et al., 2020).

The absence of a figurehead and disciplinarian in the home is frequently blamed for the behavioural issues and academic performance of children who are left behind, particularly when there is paternal migration (Zhou et al., 2020). However, when a parent is absent, there is less adult labour in the home, and children who are left behind must take care of the house, which may limit their ability to attend school (Mansuri, 2006 as referenced in Zhou et al., 2020; McKenzie & Rapoport, 2011 as quoted in Zhou et al., 2020). In particular, McKenzie and Rapoport (2011) discovered evidence that migration increases housework among Mexican girls, lowering their likelihood of finishing high school. The third channel, which is especially noticeable in cases of maternal migration, is that parental absence may have a detrimental psychological influence on the psychological well-being of children who are left behind, which in turn may damage their academic achievement and social adjustment (UNICEF, 2020).

An estimated 13 million adolescents between the ages of 12 and 17 experiment with drugs, alcohol, and other substances each year (Lennox & Cecchini, 2008). In North America, Australia, and Europe, cannabis use makes up at least 90% of illicit substance use, with tobacco and alcohol being the most often consumed substances among youth overall. Young people typically use tobacco and alcohol most frequently, with cannabis use making up 90% or more of all illicit substance use in North America, Australia, and Europe (Alexander, 2001). In addition, a survey carried out in 2002 by the Canadian Centre on Substance Abuse revealed that the average age of first substance users was 12. According to the Canadian Centre for Substance Abuse (2002), 64.7% of teenagers in grades 7 through 12 reported using alcohol in their lifetime, followed by cannabis (29%), cocaine powder (43%), and fewer than 4% other narcotics such heroin, ketamine, and crystal methamphetamine.

The average age of a first-time substance user is 12 years old, according to studies done in South Africa (see Alcohol and drug abuse module, n.d.; Madu & Matla, 2003). These results are comparable to those found in European nations (Karen Lesly, 2008; Parrott, et al., 2004). Alcohol was found to be the most often used primary substance of abuse among patients in treatment centres in the Free State, Northern Cape, and North West, according to a study by Plüddermann, Parry, and Bhana (2007). In a study by Fisher (2003), 45% of participants had tried drugs, and 32% were still using them .Furthermore, a Cape Town survey revealed that over 10% of 11 to 17-year-olds had used alcohol more than ten times (South African Community Network on Drug Use Report 11,n.d.).

Additionally, there is a significant misuse of both prescription and over-the-counter medications, including cough mixtures, analgesics, tranquillizers, and diet pills. According to Plüddermann et al. (2007), cannabis was discovered to be the second most often used drug among patients under the age of 20 in treatment facilities in the Free State and the North West.According to Plüdderman et al. (2007), patients under the age of 20 in the Northern and Western Cape also consume crack cocaine and cocaine powder rather frequently. There has also been a major surge in the usage of heroin and cocaine as secondary substances of abuse in Cape Town and Gauteng. In treatment facilities, poly-substance misuse is nevertheless prevalent (Parry, 1998; Plüddermann et al., 2007).

In South Africa, a large number of substance users are poly-users, meaning they combine different drugs with alcohol or other substances in other combinations, including cocaine and heroin (Parry, 1998). Additionally, studies indicate that synthetic compounds like ecstasy and “CAT,” which are sniffed or inhaled, are becoming more widely available and used. Plüddermann et al. (2007) report that 88% of patients under the age of 20 are male and 12% are female, with over 75% of patients being Black, a substantial rise over prior eras. 31% of patients said they had swallowed drugs when alcohol was taken out of the equation. Nearly 92% of respondents say they smoke. Merely 1% of patients disclosed to using narcotics. The bulk of patients in treatment facilities are Black, with Whites, Coloureds, and Asians following (Plüddermann et al., 2007). Substance misuse often occurs before health and academic issues in young people, such as poorer grades, increased absenteeism, dropout decisions, delayed or damaged physical, cognitive, and emotional development, or a host of other expensive repercussions (Lennox & Cecchini, 2008).

Substance abuse therefore affects several racial groups and happens in many nations, including South Africa. Families of Indian, Black, White, and Coloured people are dealing with an issue of teenage substance misuse. It is not uncommon for teenagers from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds to engage in substance misuse. Research from both urban and rural areas (Madu & Matla, 2003; Plüddermann et al., 2007) clearly demonstrate this, demonstrating that drug misuse affects both wealthy and impoverished households. According to a report released by the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME) (2021), drug and substance abuse has skyrocketed in Zimbabwe over the past 10 years and is currently one of the top ten risk factors for the country’s health. According to Rwafa et al. (2019), the Zimbabwe Civil Liberties and Drugs Network (2019) reported that approximately 45% of admitted mental health patients were young people who were misappropriating drugs and substances. The rate of young people involved in drug and substance abuse had increased from 43% in 2017 to 57% in 2019.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The study utilised a qualitative approach which enabled the researcher to collect detailed narratives and obtain a deeper understanding of participants’ lived experiences. The inductive approach was used to identify unexpected themes and concepts for future research. Loxton (2004) believes that listening to adolescents’ own perspectives has long been overlooked or ignored, and that they are reduced to a quiet minority who are spoken for by others, often well-meaning adults such as parents or teachers. To gain access to their world, it is critical to truly listen to what these adolescents say.

The researcher did not adopt quantitative data approach as it may miss subtle influences or fail to reflect the emotional reality that qualitative data can disclose.

Interviewing people who lost a parent due to migration provided firsthand insights of their psychological journey. Personal narratives  provided substantial insights on how parental migration influenced their perspectives on addiction over time.

The depth, richness, and insight provided by qualitative narratives and analysis could made a significant contribution to comprehending this understudied area.

A qualitative research methodology called phenomenological design is concerned with investigating and comprehending people’s actual experiences with a particular event. When analysing how parental migration affects youth substance use patterns in Mufakose, Zimbabwe, a phenomenological approach enables the researcher to delve deeply into the ways in which these young people understand and interpret their experiences with substance use and parental absence.

To capture the essence of the lived experiences of participants is the main objective of phenomenological research. This entails comprehending the ways that young people in Mufakose cope with the loss of their parents as a result of migration, which may involve experiencing emotions of desertion, modifications to family dynamics, and exposure to novel social settings that may have an impact on their substance-use habits.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The study’s direction was inspired by the following question: What influence does parental migration have on adolescent substance use in Mufakose? The researcher chose this topic to better understand the link between parental migration and substance use. The research question was purposefully broad in order to allow for a wide range of possibilities.

Thematic analysis of the five interviews with Mufakose young people revealed a number of themes that helped the researcher better understand how these teenagers perceive their circumstances. The themes are summarized here.

Loneliness

In-depth interviews demonstrated that parental migration negatively affects the emotional well-being of young adults aged 18 to 24. The study discovered that loneliness is one of the difficulties that young adults left behind by migrant parents’ face. Lobos et al. (2019) and Liu et al. (2020) reported the same observation, stating that teenagers who are left behind have negative emotional problems such as loneliness as a result of their parents’ absence. In the absence of the teenagers’ parents, Nazridod (2021) discovered that the left behind adolescents lack someone to talk to or offer emotional support. Some studies show that emotional displacement created by the absence of the parents can have some detrimental effects on their health, education and emotional stability (Mavaza, 2021). How they are perceived by others in their community, including friends and relatives, widens the gap between them and other members. As a result of this, the individuals expressed emotional pain which they indicated  was numbed by taking substances.

Some of the young adults who participated in this study also stated that they trusted their friends more than anyone else. They mentioned that while some of their friends never judged them, they were always aware of their situation. They went on to say that their friends supplied them with the necessary support. Though they engaged in mischievous behaviour most of the time, their friends were a source of comfort and inspiration in difficult times.

Participant 1 stated, “It’s always a pleasure hanging out with my friends because they resonate more with what I’m going through than anyone else. “Sometimes we just want to relax with a little drink and few puffs to lift our spirits. It allows us to relax and forget about our problems for a minute. When one’s biological parents leave the country and leave you behind, you feel lonely.

Another participant stated that her friends understand her better. Participant 5 echoed, “When I am stressed, I need my friends by my side.” They always know how to cheer me up, just like we usually do. However, I must acknowledge that we all do things that we later regret. But how can I simply abandon these people? They are intimately familiar with me and my concerns. They constantly empathise and sympathise with me.
The study’s findings show that friends are very important in the lives of young adults. They provide assistance in times of difficulty and help reduce feelings of loneliness in light of parental absence. When parents are not available, children are more vulnerable than others. One participant stated that she drinks alcohol (due to the influence of friends), which she believes will help her forget about the issues she is experiencing. The researcher emphasizes the need of parents to consider their children’s emotional needs before making a decision to migrate.

Abandonment

Adolescents in the study reported feelings of loneliness, abandonment, and resentment. These young adults had both parents who had migrated and were substance users as a result of parental absence. Absence of parents throughout the transition from childhood to adolescence might negatively affect children’s development. Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development emphasizes the role of social contacts in adolescent growth. Erikson believed that a supportive environment helps develop positive ego strengths and vice versa. In this study the results showed that absence of parents during this phase negatively impacted the adolescence navigation of the developmental phase.

Participants in this study expressed varied views about their parents’ absence. Adolescents expressed conflicting feelings about their parents’ migration, feeling both happy for the money gains and resentful of being left behind. Recent research has yielded new insights into how adolescents perceive parental migration. Recent research suggests that adolescents’ opinions on migrating mothers may be more complicated than previously thought (Parreñas, 2006).

In 2020 research of Filipino teenagers with migrant parents, Manalansan et al (2020), discovered that, while separation was stressful, participants typically recognized their parents’ decision to work abroad was motivated by concern for their futures. According to one adolescent, “my parents want the best for me, that’s why they sacrifice being away” (Manalansan et al., 2020:152).

Similarly, seeking social support from peers was a significant coping method, as previously reported (Parreñas, 2006). However, Manalansan et al. (2020:149) discovered that technology now enables more consistent distant care from migrant parents. According to one participant, “even if Mom is in another country, we can still talk on video chat every day”. These more recent studies reveal that adolescents see their situations more positively than previous research indicated. With enhanced communication tools, parental migration does not always imply abandonment in the view of their children (Manalansan et al., 2020).

In terms of coping, Park et al. (2020) conducted a qualitative study that investigated the positive effects of parental migration. Some adolescents reported that migration encouraged self-reliance as they took on everyday tasks. It also promoted stronger sibling connections as they supported one another. While separation was unpleasant, these youth saw themselves maturing faster than their peers with non-migrant parents. Findings from this study affirmed Park’s observations as most of the participants indicated how they had become close to their siblings since their parents’ migration.

Most research on parental migration have been conducted in Western countries, including the Caribbean, Jamaica, Mexico, and Asian countries. This study is unique in that it was conducted in an African context and its conclusions are relevant to Zimbabwean culture.

Increased Responsibilities

All of the participants reported having to assume new roles and obligations previously handled by their parent(s). The males, in particular, were expected to be the family’s head and mentor to younger siblings, whilst the girls appear to be primarily responsible for household chores. The adolescents interviewed found these additional roles difficult. Although some seem to realize the benefits, the majority appear to be resentful, especially since these tasks  interfered with their social life. The study found that adolescent children of migrant parents had various duties, including caring for their siblings and leading the family, which they described as burdensome. According to the findings, the participants carried out household and family tasks. Participant 5 stated, “Every day, I have to make sure that my siblings are fed, bathed, and clean before they go to school.” “This has been the norm and routine since my parents moved to the United States.” Clifton-Spiggs (2018) reports that parental migration causes role changes within the home, with some siblings left to lead the households. Their failure to appropriately care for their siblings may be due to their young age. In this study, all of the participants agree that this is a difficult task.

Monitoring younger siblings while they perform their duties is a difficult task for teenagers since the siblings see them as children as well, and they do not want to take instructions from them. It becomes a problem for the senior left behind adolescent because they are the eldest and must ensure the family continue to function in the parents’ absence. Kufakurinani et al. (2014) discovered that teenage girls with parental duty have difficulty establishing authority over other teenagers in their family. This could be because the younger siblings look down on their elder sister because she is also young. They do not want to take her orders. Adolescent females who are left behind end up taking on parental obligations as a result of their parents’ absence, skipping most of their developmental phases (Magwa and Magwa, 2016). The results of this study show that participants become heads of homes at a young age. They also guide their siblings, even when they also require direction. Nonetheless, managing behavioural concerns continues to be a significant obstacle for the older and more capable youngster.

CONCLUSION

The main conclusions drawn from this study are as follows:

Loneliness is a major issue for young adults aged 18-24 who were left behind by migrant parents. They lack emotional support and connection. Friends play an important role in reducing loneliness but their influence can also increase risky behavior like substance use.

Feelings of abandonment and resentment are common. While communication technologies have helped, the separation from parents during a crucial developmental period negatively impacted psychosocial development, as Erik Erikson’s theory predicted.

Left-behind youth assume more responsibilities like caring for siblings, managing the household, and taking on parental roles at a young age. This is viewed as challenging by the young adults and burdensome, although some appreciate it building self-reliance.

Having financial resources from parents makes substances more accessible, and lacking parental monitoring and control enables risky experimentation. Money is sometimes misused, like inflating needs to sustain addiction.

Modelling behaviour after peers and celebrities normalizes substance use as a means of bonding, coping, and achieving happiness. But regular use often leads to problems rather than empowerment.

Even without familial substance abuse, peers are highly influential and youth may be “forced to accept everything peers offer” for the social support their peers provide.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Following a careful examination of the data, the researcher suggests that the following measures be taken by parents, guardians, educators, and legislators to minimize the detrimental impacts of parental absence and to support the psychological wellness of adolescents who are left behind.

Parents need to know how their absence affect the teenagers they leave behind. Educating parents on how to best prepare their adolescents for migration and life without their parents would be tremendously beneficial. Parents should place a strong focus on the necessity of having regular communication with their children.

Caregivers could be informed about some of the difficulties that teenagers with immigrant parents have, particularly those that impede their ability to adapt and integrate into their new families.

By exploring the level of knowledge and attitudes of teenagers towards substance abuse, there is need for providing them with necessary information and shape their attitudes so as for them to cope effectively with the issues of substance abuse. In addition, intervention programmes should be designed to provide the best information on substance abuse among those who already abuse them and to those who are prone to abuse substances.

The research has found out that the environment is a strong setting for substance abuse. The government and other ministries (such as Ministry of Health, Education and the Police) should be involved in providing appropriate programmes at all levels in all communities (for example, education, awareness campaigns and arrest) in order to reduce the risk of harm arising from substance abuse for those using drugs and preventing those who are not yet involved with drugs.

The study also determined that one of the major reasons for substance abuse among teenagers is the proliferation of drugs within the community. It is recommended that the community (family) with the support of the government initiatives should help the teenagers to prevent substance abuse by equipping them with the best knowledge about the dangers of using drugs and how to resist the temptation to engage in them. Moreover, community leaders should regularly invite substance abuse professionals to teach teenagers about substance abuse and provide more information on substance abuse consequences.

As the findings showed that there are no organisations or institutions helping with substance abuse issues in the community, prevention programmes need to be implemented so as to help the community to overcome challenges pertaining to substance use and abuse. To ensure viable of the programmes, there is need for continuation provision of professional staff and programme materials to help teenagers and the community at large.

In addition to offering experimental proof of the occurrence of this phenomena and associated subjects, research in this field would help us comprehend the experiences of the adolescents who are left behind on a deeper level. The researcher suggests that additional research be conducted utilizing diverse qualitative methods not covered in this study to supplement the current knowledge base and facilitate the creation of interventions targeted at adolescents whose parents are immigrants.

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