Urine Reuse for Sustainable Agriculture and Nutrient Recovery: An Updated Systematic Evidence Synthesis of Technologies, Agronomic Effectiveness, Environmental Risks and Implementation Challenges

Human urine is increasingly recognised as a recoverable nutrient resource for circular sanitation and sustainable agriculture. This evidence synthesis examines source separation, nutrient recovery technologies, agronomic effectiveness, environmental and health risks, pharmaceutical contaminants, socioeconomic considerations and implementation requirements. Recent literature indicates that urine contains a disproportionately large share of the nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium present in domestic wastewater. Treatment approaches include storage and stabilisation, biological nitrification, precipitation, membrane separation, electrochemical recovery, adsorption, dehydration and integrated systems. Evidence from recent reviews and field studies indicates that appropriately treated urine-derived fertilisers can provide agronomic performance comparable with conventional mineral fertilisers under suitable conditions. Nevertheless, pharmaceutical residues, pathogens, salinity, nutrient imbalance, antimicrobial resistance, treatment cost and public acceptance remain important considerations. The evidence supports urine reuse as a promising component of circular nutrient management, provided that collection, treatment, quality assurance, application and monitoring are governed by risk-based standards. Further long-term field research, particularly under African and tropical conditions, is required.

human urine; urine reuse; urine-derived fertiliser; nutrient recovery; source separation; sustainable agriculture; circular economy; sanitation safety.

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