Exploring Measures of Incorporating Street Vending as a Legal Way of Sustaining Community Livelihood and the Viability of Nation’s Economy.

Exploring Measures of Incorporating Street Vending as a Legal Way of Sustaining Community Livelihood and the Viability of Nation’s Economy.

Musa Adamu Eya^1*, Sulieman Abdullahi², Abdulmumin Abubakar Liman³

^1,2,3Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Nasarawa State University Keffi, Nigeria

¹Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Federal University of Technology Owerri, Nigeria

*Corresponding Author

DOI: https://doi.org/10.51584/IJRIAS.2025.100700085

Received: 27 April 2025; Accepted: 06 May 2025; Published: 14 August 2025

ABSTRACT

Numerous national, state, and local government regulations are expressly targeted at regulating human activities, and most nations have a long history of coordinating vending activities. Many professionals from across the world have studied how to regulate street vending activities. Nevertheless, such information is uncommon in Nasarawa State policy formulation. There is nothing yet done to measure the effect of street vending activities as an urban planning act to checkmate such operations along urban roadways. Two possible cluster road hierarchies were examined. Abubakar Burga Road (along the police station), Federal Medical Centre (FMC) Road. The study employed both descriptive and analytic research methods using a statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) to analyse the variable’s relationship and control human activities on urban corridors. However, a regression analysis was employed in the analysis. The study used population, environmental quality, and building encroachment as independent variables to identify the relationships among the various attributes. The study revealed a shred of statistical evidence between vending activities and clustered streets. The Human Development Index (HDI) found that street vending should be included in broader groups of planning categories. Stakeholders, transportation planners, policymakers, and other regulatory agencies must acknowledge that street vendors are more prevalent in developing nations and are typically centred around city cores and corridor routes.

Keywords: Human development index, Street vending, Building encroachment, environmental quality, Livelihoods.

INTRODUCTION

Human activities are numerous and the importance attached to them provides opportunities for lesser privilege individuals engaging in self-reliant jobs of illegal vending. Vending is critical to supply chains because it connects products to consumers on a more localised scale than privately owned enterprises. It is unwise and under economic hardship that many city dwellers are involved in street vending activities to meet their daily household needs. Street vending regulations are measures set by the government to guide and control vending activities along roadways. The percentage of the urban labour force involved in illegal vending operations is paramount in Sub-Saharan Africa, representing over 50% of urban employment (ILO, 2018).

Illegal street vending is a widespread occurrence in urban places across the globe (Ray et al., 2020). However, others takes the meritorious view of unregulated activities of street vending by the government to perpetual the operation (A. M. Eya et al., 2022). Previous studies on street reservation do not differentiate between open street ways and regulated street ways as open street ways constitute a major portion of the city image (Sulaiman et al., 2019). However, roads are unique features of the open street space in a city. Streets are the fundamental component of the geometries of the city’s environment (Latip et al., 2020). The principal objectives of street vending regulation are to safeguard public health, maintain public space for pedestrians and vehicles, and enhance urban aesthetics and street quality (Pileri, 2021).

Street trading is an essential part of self-employment in developing countries with large numbers of men and women involved (Rajabu, 2022). However, little is known about their effects on traffic and guidelines stimulating vending activities (Letters et al., 2023). Cities now have different requirements than in the past. However sustainable cities must be financially feasible, socially equitable, politically stable, and environmentally sustainable to offer the highest level of human comfort (A. M. Eya et al., 2023).

Background of the Study

Keffi Central Business area is the most highly commercial activities area including Kofar Goria market. The central business area has a strong sense of economic attraction amidst commercial, public and private schools, stalls and plazas as well, as petrol stations, banks, and a central garage (motor park). The area is famously known for the community’s commercial activities and as a trading hub. The vibrancy of commercial activities within the central business area is not the only deriving factor it is the heart of vending engagement but the existence of Federal Medical Centre (FMC) also makes the area so unique and attracts vendors and buyers along the corridor roads.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Location theory and business placement decisions draw statistical correlations between the site of individual activity creation and the relevance of their local economic region (Dubé et al., 2016). The Distance-Based Measure (DBM) may be utilised in a discrete choice model in which the distance to the centre influences the size and location selection. (Dubé et al., 2016). Location theories seek to explain why businesses pick their sites based on the value and importance of the land. Zoning is crucial for governing illegal vending operations to regulate and obtain a licence, hence increasing public awareness (Garg et al., 2021). To decongest traffic, illegal street vendors ought to be relocated to off-street sites where they are required to register, pay taxes, and either rent or own premises in order to formalise their business (Roy et al., 2022).

In valuation techniques that entail either enhancing cost-effectiveness or lowering costs, businesses must finally make location judgements while picking the best feasible site from a given set of options and limitations. Economic geography has long been interested in explaining the reason underlying this placement process. Streets make up a notable segment of community open space that feeds and is the most common symbol of public land (Annison, 2011) However, roads that serve as a functional, social, and comfort need of the community have been confidently connected with economic rise, physical well-being of the community, and a sense of community (M. A. Eya et al., 2019). The physical form of place character and circulatory landuse resolute the use of pathway.

Human activities on roadways are prodigious and can cause a great deal of stress to the natural environment (Bamu & Dinesh, 2021). There is constant debate regarding the consequences of removing illegal vendors and their justification for commercial freedom, while trade organizations contend that illegal vending promotes unfair competition (Lemessa et al., 2021). The retail scene has expanded beyond typical shopfronts to include illegal vendors and food carts (Al-Jundi, Basahel, et al., 2022). In Africa, estimates of illegal vendors in national accounts are absent, inconsistent, outdated, and inaccurate (Mramba, 2022). Illegal vendors are responsible for distributing litter and other garbage on streets.

The Theory of Rent

Central place theory is a closely related, informal, descriptive model of city size, city location, and economic region based on the trade-off between increasing manufacturing profitability and the cost of moving goods within a business in the market region (Malczewski, 2019). (Wikman & Mohall, 2022) are credited with establishing the concept after conducting extensive research on urban ranking and then attempting to duplicate it (Kamil, 2011). The basic assumption is that the market population is evenly distributed, whereas enterprises are concentrated in towns (Malczewski, 2019). In the 18th century, David Richardo and John Von Thunnen recognised the natural organisation of economic activity and created a deliberate role for the government to protect natural order and safeguard environmental resources. This rent is known as location rent because it varies with time and location, particularly as a function of distance from the market (Walker, 2022).

Concentric Zone Model

The concentric ring model, often known as Burgess’ model, was one of the first theories to explain both the internal city structure and the urban social sphere in Chicago in 1925. The model represented the distribution of social clusters in urban regions (Y.-L. Cheng et al., 2016), (Z. Chen & Fan, 2020)(J. Chen et al., 2022). Burgess regularly noticed a correlation between distance from the central business area (CBD) and resident affluence; the richest families tended to live somewhat further away from Downtown.

Figure 1. Burgess model

Source: Adapted from (J. Chen et al., 2022)

Burgess also noted that as the city grew, the central business district (CBD) expanded outward, prompting the other rings to do the same. It worth is defined by the earnings that may be produced by running a business on the property (Z. A. Cheng et al., 2020)(Y. Chen et al., 2020). The landing point for immigrants who, as soon as they could afford it, moved out to adjacent rings of working-class apartments, single-family homes, and increasingly affluent suburbs (Reiffenstein, 2017). However, Burgess’ theory examines urban social patterns by grouping socioeconomic groups into concentric circles around a city’s core. Unregulated street selling influences the human environment and is predicted to cause national insecurity through disturbance, environmental degradation, and community health hazards (Hove et al. 2020). Street vending is critical to the survival of not just businesses, but also local people and consumers. (richard oliver ( dalam Zeithml., 2021). Outlawing all selling activities is an uncomfortable option because it would risk many people’s livelihoods and survival.

Global Policy on Street Trading Activities

The most common theme in the existing literature is an examination of various facets of the policy environment. Several studies have been conducted to analyse policy and the environment surrounding street sellers. Critical considerations in this regard include, but are not limited to, the application of legislation, rules, and policies, regulation of public space use, rationale, institutional issues, and effectiveness. Adama, (2020),(Adama, 2021) analyses the employment of the law as a disciplinary technology to govern street vendors and the emergence of tensions in Abuja’s modern metropolis. Street sellers claimed public space as a lawful site of livelihood, which sparked objections from decision-makers and planning theories alike. Pezzano, (2016) depicts an asymmetric governance structure and a paradoxical strategy that attempted to drive municipal authorities in the urban core, where democratic participation clashed with authoritarian enforcement laws and regulations. The inherent issues of a segmented state, as well as how they affect whether informality is denounced or allowed (te Lintelo, 2017).

The possible policy approach for dealing with street sellers in the political square is conceptual framework of the setting, dynamics, and motivations of street hawking (Onodugo et al., 2016). Moatasim, (2019) claims that granting temporary permissions is a novel way for the government to control black market commerce in Islamabad, a planned modernist city. The importance of socio-spatial challenges in the creation of inclusive land-use and transportation policies is examined by (Recio et al., 2019),(Recio, 2022). The importance of space-time, flexible entrepreneurship, surprising institutional logic, and connectivity was emphasised (Charman & Govender, 2016). The failure to influence local legislators and evaluate their belief that street vending contributes to unemployment (Linares, 2018).

Sustainable livelihoods and viable social-economic trajectory

In a wealthy and naturally endowed country like Nigeria, literature on human activities along highways is ineffective. This research is important because human activities have made petty capitalism compatible with the nation’s mixed economy system of government (M. A. Eya et al., 2019). However, several public organisations regard street sellers as an important component of global urban economies. Keffi urban area, Nasarawa, Nigeria, can be classified as an apex city due to their ideal trading positions and large topographical formations, although many populations are interested in socioeconomic livelihood activities that encourage people to start businesses. Furthermore, the likelihood of street vendor activities contributes to the city’s socioeconomic variety. This comparison favours city dwellers and cannot be weighed against individual or societal growth to limit the variability or complexity of professional skills relevant to other economic activities.

METHODOLOGY

The methodology chapter outlines the research procedures for gathering data, and evaluation techniques employed to evaluate the effects of illegal vending on urban street quality. This study utilises a mixed-methods approach, combining qualitative and quantitative tools to clarify the intricate effects of illegal vending. Triangulation method including questionnaire, interview, and focus group discussion was adopted to compare survey data on the effects of illegal vending on urban street quality through surveyed data, methods employed to cross-examine and improving the understanding of the challenges. The survey was conducted in Keffi, Nasarawa State, Nigeria. A multifaceted qualitative approach was adopted, including site inspections and semi-structured interviews with important respondents from state and local planning authorities.

The research location was chosen because of its commercial, institutionally thriving population and closeness to Nigeria’s capital, Abuja. The area has a unique history and social values. The two (2) most popular street-selling locations were carefully selected. Keffi was chosen in part because most business operations take place along central business streets. Thirty (30) people were selected and interviewed, including the buyer. Respondents were carefully selected, with a focus on vending places that could be directly monitored. Vendor responses to coercive eviction and asset seizure by security agencies affect their daily income from uncontrolled economic activity. Given that illegal street vendors were operating on self-sacrifice, the study used purposive sampling approaches to collect data and defend its findings.

The descriptive and inferential statistical analyses were used to measure the skewness and kurtosis of the data distribution. As a result, organising vending would provide an alternate source of income for communities while also benefiting the national economy. However, the report classifies both fixed and foot merchants wandering the streets as significant areas of commercial attractiveness.

Incorporating illegal street vending could significantly improve communal livelihoods by providing revenue opportunities, particularly for the poor, as well as contributing to personal economic activity. However, it can lead to traffic congestion, rubbish disposal issues, and potential clashes with government entities (Bhatt 2018). Franklin, (2018)investigated the economic consequences of street selling and used a structured questionnaire using stratified sampling methods; they discovered that street vending had a significant contribution to people’s political, social, and economic livelihoods. Jolaoso & O. A, (2021)analysed primary data collected through stratified random sampling using descriptive statistics. The following elements can influence street trading: location, economic, preference, and housing; and social component (Planning & Campus, n.d.).

Descriptive and inferential statistics are more applicable to data captured household information related to income and education of street traders who are deficient in formal education (Temitope et al., 2022).The used of qualitative approach based on preliminary observations account for the influential number of merchants, items exchanged, and distribution. Nonetheless, the researchers classified the vendors into food, gods, and services (richard oliver ( dalam Zeithml., 2021). Joseph et al., (2022) used generalised least square approach to identify the relationship between gender differences and the rise of the roadside business in South Africa. The paper found a significant impact on the rise of street trading in African regions.

The 30 selected respondents were utilised to generalise to all vendors in order to gain detailed knowledge from a specific participant. This method indicates that the quality and relevancy of data are often more important than the quantity. As a result, 30 surveys were sufficient to deepen the study setting. The study poll sought respondents who are knowledgeable or actively involved in the street industry to provide rich, relevant information. This tiny sample size is noteworthy because the study delves further into statistical tests. The study carefully selected participants based on their experiences with purchasers. This results in extremely relevant and focused data analysis.

Figure 2. Hypothesis model

Research Hypothesis

H₀: Street vending has no influence on community livelihood

H₁: Street vending have influence community livelihood.

H₀: Street vending has no influence on the viability of nation’s economy

H_1: Street vending have influence on the viability of nation’s economy

These hypotheses are intended to analyse the various aspects of adopting street vending as a legal and regulated source of income, with a particular emphasis on the influence on the lives of communities and the overall economy. Stabilisation on street sellers’ welfare, livelihood, and location can be investigated using non parametric statistics. (Rahayu et al., 2018), (Rahayu et al., 2019).

Socio-Economic Characteristics of Street Vendors

Demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of the respondents age, sex, marital status, level of education, income level, duration of vending. These characteristics are significant because they influence the population, attitudes towards vending, perceptions, behaviours, decisions, policy, location, regulatory measures, and choices.

Table 1. Age composition

Source: Survey, 2024

The table shows that 20% of age category 9 to 19 years are children who are supposed to be school were engaged in to vending because of poor family background.  Poor family circumstances compel youngsters aged 20 to 29 to engage in vending, resulting in significant and complex consequences. Absence from school may hinder the development of crucial competencies, including literacy, and critical thinking.

Table 2. Table Marital status

Source: Survey, 2024

The classification of vendor groups among illegal street vendors may produce varied socio-economic and urban development effects. The economic stability and motivation of a single, unmarried vendor (35%), perhaps with fewer dependents, may afford enhanced flexibility in income distribution. Married families with vendors (50%) frequently have dependents, including children and possibly extended relatives, thereby heightening the need for a consistent income. Divorced vendors (15%) may face more financial challenges, such as single motherhood or the lack of dual income.

Table 3. Income level

Source: Survey, 2025

Table 3 above shows that cumulatively, 83% of respondents earn below the national minimum wage underscores considerable economic difficulties encountered by the vendors. These indicators are essential for improving the overall well-being and quality of life for low-income individuals in the community is crucial.

Table 4. Educational qualification of street vendors

Source: Survey, 2025

Human capital investment in small-scale enterprises allows city residents to support their education and other everyday requirements without relying on white-collar jobs, particularly in the unemployment sector. Regulating street vending activities in Nigeria is critical. The geographical positions, human resources, and economic viability of these two cities cannot be 2overstated, as population and economic output indicate the possibility of future economic stability.

Table 5 Sources of funds

Source: Survey, 2025

The study areas could act as a growth engine for their respective nations and regions. Federal, state, and local actors should empower young individuals who are prone to fail and increase production power. Street vendors are actively tracking various livelihoods and working to better their standard of living. Government regulations, commercial certainty, and inward-looking urban planning should focus on a sense of stability when including street vending activities into road design proposals.

Table 6 Variables Data Coding

Source: Survey, 2025

Scale Reliability

The research components or measurements items computed the data including dependent and independent variable. However, in this test, all variables entered without single value missed. validity and reliability to guarantee that their measurements correctly represent. The constructs augment the trustworthiness of research outcomes and for cultivating confidence in the used procedures.

Table 7 Case processing summary

This study questioned 30 respondents, guaranteeing that each participant answered every question, resulting in 30 cases. The five modified data variables authenticate a test or instrument, affirming its accurate measurement of designated objectives. Content validity indicates that the measurement includes all relevant aspects of the construct. The evaluation of items used to measure each variable covers the entire study domain.

Table 8 Reliability Statistics

Cronbach’s alpha of 0.908 indicates exceptional internal consistency. The items on the scale exhibit a strong correlation and consistently assess the same construct. This suggests that the responses to the items improve the reliability and precision of the scale. The scale is reliable due to its alpha rating of 0.74. The results of the scale possess greater credibility and validity owing to their high internal consistency. Despite standardising the items, Cronbach’s Alpha remains at 0.908, signifying robust internal consistency. This indicates that the items’ elevated reliability is inherent, not due to their scales.

Nonparametric Statistics

Table 9 Hypothesis Test Summary

Spearman’s Coefficient of Correlation

Where:

r is the sample correlation coefficient

n is the sample size

x is the value of the independent variable

y is the value of the dependent variable

Nonparametric correlation coefficients, such as Spearman’s rank correlation, evaluate the strength and direction of the association between two ranked variables without assuming a normal distribution. The significance level (p-value) indicates the probability of observing the link as a result of random chance. A p-value under 0.001 signifies a highly significant correlation.

The estimation is based on Fisher’s, Hartley, and Pearson r-to-z transformation.

The correlation coefficient of 0.617** indicates a strong positive relationship between illegal vending and street quality. As illegal vending spreads, the quality of urban streets deteriorates rapidly. A p-value < 0.001 suggests a very significant relationship with a chance of less than 0.1%. This provides compelling evidence that illegal vending impairs regulatory law. The correlation coefficient of 0.815** suggests a strong positive relationship between street vending and community livelihoods.

An increase in illegal vending activities is linked to an increase in building encroachment and vendor umbrella stands. At a significance level of less than < 0.05, the correlation is very significant, indicating that the probability of this association occurring by chance is minimal. This is substantial evidence that illegal vending intensifies encroachment challenges.

A correlation coefficient of 0.487** indicates a strong positive relationship between illegal vending and traffic congestion. The increase of illegal vending operations exacerbates traffic congestion (table 4.29). A significance level of less than 0.001 denotes that this relationship is highly significant, having an extremely Highly probability of occurring by chance. This provides substantial evidence that illegal vending significantly contributes to vehicle congestion. The study used Fisher’s r-to-z transformation formula to convert the correlation coefficients. A greater z-score signifies a stronger, more robust correlation between the variables. The significance values (< 0.001) indicate that all correlations are very significant, showing that the observed interactions are unlikely to have occurred by coincidence.

Table 11 Confidence Interval Spearman’s rho

The Spearman’s rho values demonstrate substantial-to-strongly positive correlations between illegal vending and various elements of urban street quality.  The notably low p-values (< 0.001) for all correlations, with an average Spearman’s rho of 0.815, indicate that these relationships are statistically significant. These findings demonstrate the significant effect of illegal vending in urban areas, accentuating the necessity for effective control and regulatory measures.

PLUM- Ordinal Regression

Table 12 Item-Total Statistics

The Cronbach’s Alpha values are 0.547, 0.628, and 0.755. The summary item reveals that Cronbach’s Alpha values are exceptionally, matching 0.7. The high values demonstrate that the items in each scale show good consistency, indicating their dependable measurement of the same underlying notion.

Table 13  Intraclass correlation coefficient

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

Roads are the most important physical component of any transportation system, serving a social, economic, and environmental purpose that is essential for progress. However, as the number of human activities, cars, and road safety has become a key worry for drivers, pedestrians, and other road users, resulting in lower pedestrian and vehicular movement as well as unexpected travel delays. One of the grounds for such actions is that they detract from the aesthetic attractiveness of urban development, impair urban road infrastructure, disrupt traffic flow, and pollute the environment.

Economic imbalances and a lack of jobs have contributed to the issue of an illegal vending along roadway, huge number of unemployed adults engaged in illegal vending on streets to earning a living. The fast increase in urban populations has made it harder. One of the biggest repercussions of urbanisation is the development of street vendors, who have been rapidly rising in number and occupying road reserves along the study area. Vending items on the street has become a key source of income for jobless teenagers and low-income people.

Cronbach’s Values 0.920 indicates outstanding reliability. This indicates a strong interconnection among the items and a consistent evaluation of the variables. The value 0.559 slightly moderate below 0.7, indicating outstanding reliability and internal consistency. The value of 0.628 also moderate indicating strong and consistent results. The value 0.815 demonstrates the highest magnitude among those listed, signifying the greatest level of internal consistency (table 11, 12, and 13) align with Cronbach’s Alpha measurement indicating a strong and consistent results. The scale elements demonstrate outstanding reliability in evaluating the construction. Cronbach’s Alpha signifies that a value beyond 0.7 is considered acceptable. The study has high reliability values, signifying that the scales or items employed in the research are very trustworthy.

These item statistics show how individual test items performed, and the quality of these elements influences the overall performance of the test. It explains how objects are placed on a scale. The item value of 3.163 indicates that the average value of the data entered, including the minimum and maximum ranges, was correctly calculated. The range value of 0.383 represented the average difference between the minimum and maximum values (table 6).

FINDINGS

The results demonstrate that regulating street vending improves the livelihood of urban dwellers. As well, government regulations along with encouraging facilities for street vending improve economic viability. Regulating street vending by engaging the community improves city quality of life.

Investing in educating street vendors improves their operational performance. Regulating vending on the streets decreases liabilities in the unregulated trade and increases adherence to regulations.

Measures to Regulate Street Vending Activities.

Regulatory Guidelines: Developing clear and favourable rules that acknowledge street vending as a viable economic activity. This entails establishing designated vending zones, providing licences and permits, and ensuring vendors are granted access to basic utilities such as cleanliness and trash disposal.

Education and Assistance: Educating street vendors on business operation, financial awareness, and rights under the law. This allows them to function more effectively and negotiate within the framework of regulations.

Infrastructure Development: Developing infrastructures that enable street vending, such as selling sites with enough amenities, storage areas, and links to potable water and power.

Community Engagement: Engaging community members in the conception and execution of street vending programs to guarantee that the needs and desires of both vendors and consumers are met.

Economic Incentives: Provide opportunities for vendors to officially register their enterprises, such as tax reductions, loans for small businesses, and financing opportunities.

Viability of the Nation’s Economy

Economic Influence: Street vending may bring a major boost to the unregulated economy by creating job possibilities and money for many people. This may assist to alleviate poverty and enhance living conditions.

Market Diversity: Street vendors frequently provide distinctive and culturally pertinent goods that are not readily accessible in traditional marketplaces. This array of attractions has the potential to draw residents as well as travellers, thereby stimulating the rural economies.

Unofficial businesses, particularly street vending, frequently exhibit extraordinary endurance during economic crises. Vendors may react swiftly to shifting economic circumstances and buyer tastes.

Legalising and promoting street vending can improve social stability by minimising confrontations between vendors and authorities and instilling a feeling of belonging and social connection within vendors.

By applying these procedures, street vending may be changed from an unregulated activity to an acknowledged and encouraged part of the local economy, serving both vendors and the larger society.

CONCLUSION

Selling basic necessities encourages frequent connections within the community. Vendors and buyers frequently develop solid social connections, which help each other and improve community cohesiveness. By offering basic food items, these sellers contribute significantly to the community’s overall well-being. Access to freshly harvested fruits and vegetables promotes healthier eating habits and general well-being. The sale of everyday necessities can provide a consistent source of revenue, but it is also constrained by issues such as market saturation, low profit margins, and rivalry. The sale of fruits, vegetables, and commodities may be firmly ingrained in ethnic customs and practices. The vending methods represent a continuation of customary market operations shared down across generations.

The capacity to respond to customer needs and tastes is crucial. Vendors frequently diversify their items based on what is in consumer demand, demonstrating resilience and flexibility. Policymakers should examine methods to help these sellers, such as providing loans, training on sustainable agricultural techniques, and improving logistics to ensure accessibility to the marketplace. Efficient urban planning can help businesses thrive by guaranteeing that trading spaces are accessible, clean, and structured, which benefits both vendors and customers. Identifying these dynamics allows stakeholders to effectively sustain the economic activities undertaken by people who sell critical commodities, thereby increasing their importance to the community’s well-being and sustainability.

RECOMMENDATION

Creating rules and regulations that permit street vending and defined vending zones, sanitary facilities, and parking lots, enhances street quality. Capacity building initiatives will help individuals enhance their ability and expertise. Education and capacity development initiatives will help individuals enhance their abilities and expertise. Local communities should take part in the process of preparing and deciding for street vending. Economic benefits such as microloans, subsidies, and tax advantages for street vendors are paramount to boost vendors activity. Community livelihood measures include income levels, labour force participation, and social welfare. Viability of the Nation’s Economy: Economic metrics such as growth in gross domestic product, lowering poverty rates, and resilience to recession.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I thank Professor Abubakar Mahmud of the Department of Geography, Director Centre for Carrier Development, Nasarawa State University Keffi, Nigeria for his substantial contribution, and Adam Maidodo Maiyaki, Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Federal Polytechnic Nasarawa, Nigeria for their substantial contribution to the completion of this study.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work under this study.

Data availability statement

The data that support the finding of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request and shall be available on-line under the authority IJRIAS, and special request from the author.

Funding

Not applicable.

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