Surveillance, Subjectivity, and Resistance: Reconfiguring Women’s Agency in Conservative and Digital Societies

Surveillance, Subjectivity, and Resistance: Reconfiguring Women’s Agency in Conservative and Digital Societies

Somya Pandey (Research Scholar)

Department of Sociology and Social Work, Dr. Harisingh Gour University, Sagar, Madhya Pradesh

DOI: https://doi.org/10.51584/IJRIAS.2025.100700080

Received: 22 July 2025; Accepted: 28 July 2025; Published: 13 August 2025

ABSTRACT

This research paper presents a critical analysis of the role of social surveillance in shaping women’s subjectivity within traditional and conservative societies. Institutions such as family, religion, the state, and digital infrastructures like the internet engage in varying levels of disciplinary surveillance over women, often under the guise of maintaining social order. These disciplinary mechanisms encourage internalized censorship, leading women to adopt and embody gender norms, thereby shaping their identities within confined and regulated boundaries. Paradoxically, the same structures that enforce control may also open pathways for agency and decision-making.

Drawing upon feminist theoretical frameworks and Foucault’s concept of panopticism, the study explores the dual nature of surveillance. Through an examination of internalized norms—ranging from maternal expectations and beauty standards to digital self-monitoring—it investigates how women engage with, resist, and at times reconfigure dominant societal discourses. Case studies from postcolonial and conservative contexts further illuminate how state-enforced morality, communal oversight, and digital technologies operate as mechanisms of control.

The paper also analyzes how cultural and familial surveillance evolves in response to technological advancements and shifting societal expectations. Using examples from literature, cinema, social media, and ethnographic research, it uncovers the complex interplay between control and resistance. Ultimately, it argues that despite pervasive surveillance, women continuously seek ways to assert their autonomy and redefine their subjectivity, thereby challenging the binary narratives of power and subjugation.

These findings contribute to ongoing debates in feminist theory, surveillance studies, and digital sociology, demonstrating how resistance and conformity coexist in the lived experiences of surveilled women.

Keywords: Surveillance, Women’s Agency, Feminist Subjectivity, Digital Panopticism, Internalized Norms, Resistance, Conservative Societies

INTRODUCTION

In conservative societies, where traditional values are often preserved through rigid social structures, women’s subjectivity becomes a site of constant negotiation between compliance and resistance. Women routinely encounter various forms of surveillance—visible or invisible, direct or covert. These range from familial expectations and religious doctrines to state-imposed laws and digital technologies. Although such disciplinary frameworks are primarily designed to enforce conformity, they also inadvertently create complex spaces for resistance, allowing women opportunities to challenge and reconfigure their identities.

Surveillance functions not merely as a tool of social control but also as a mechanism through which power becomes internalized. Michel Foucault’s (1977) theory of panopticism underscores how surveillance operates most effectively when it compels individuals to self-monitor even in the absence of a direct observer. In patriarchal societies, this panoptic logic permeates women’s lives through moral, cultural, and behavioral expectations. Disciplinary institutions—whether familial, religious, or digital—encourage women to internalize prevailing social norms, resulting in self-censorship, particularly in relation to their appearance, sexuality, and public conduct(Isser et al., 2024) (Pileggi et al., 2005). The digital age has further intensified this phenomenon. Social media platforms, initially promoted as tools for self-expression, have now evolved into instruments of digital panopticism. Women are increasingly engaged in both self-surveillance and mutual surveillance, often reproducing patriarchal values even within seemingly liberated digital spaces (Ardilla & Agustin, 2024)(Rathbone, 2022).

“Cyberzek” refers to a system of digital surveillance or control wherein centralized powers observe, track, or regulate an individual’s digital behavior, data, or internet activity without their awareness. It functions as a contemporary extension of Foucault’s panopticon, wherein visibility becomes a means of enforcing discipline and behavioral conformity (Manokha, 2018).  Moreover, surveillance is not unidimensional; it can also incite freedom, resistance, and even transformation. Women often repurpose mechanisms of surveillance by engaging in counter-narratives, art, literature, and activism, thereby subverting dominant norms. Margaret Atwood’s dystopian literature exemplifies how women resist within oppressive structures (Wrobel, 2023). Similarly, in postcolonial contexts, women challenge patriarchal nationalism through acts of defiance and self-assertion (Marasinghe & Ehelapitiya, 2024).

The internalization of norms such as the ideals of the “good mother” and beauty standards functions as another disciplinary apparatus. Medicine, communication, and media often reinforce maternal expectations, thereby contributing to fatigue and emotional strain among mothers (Milman & Sternadori, 2024). Beauty standards related to hair removal and body image provoke self-surveillance, thereby constraining self-worth and personal autonomy (Ville, 2017). Similarly, gender norms shape self-evaluation and behavior, particularly in contexts where deviation from prescribed expectations invites shame or stigma (Ford et al., 2002). n India, surveillance is deeply intertwined with the notion of family “honor.” In rural and semi-urban areas, women are subjected to layered surveillance by patriarchal structures such as fathers, brothers, and community bodies like khap panchayats, which often justify behavioral control in the name of cultural preservation(Bhattacharya, 2024) (Malik & Purohit, 2024) (Lee et al., 2024). The incorporation of digital tools—such as mobile phone surveillance or social media monitoring—into this system of oversight exemplifies the fusion of traditional and modern mechanisms of control (Kim & Agrawal, 2024).

Globally, the Iranian example vividly illustrates the state’s use of technological tools to enforce gendered morality. From the “Guidance Patrol” to the “Nazer” app, state surveillance extends beyond public spaces into private lives, intensifying spatial injustices and psychological distress (Akbari, 2021). Nevertheless, these repressive mechanisms have also catalyzed resistance, with women reclaiming digital spaces to assert their freedom and protest against restrictive laws. Cultural and familial surveillance—often perceived as benevolent or protective—reflects deeper forms of social control that can undermine autonomy. For instance, parental surveillance may enhance safety, but it simultaneously enforces conformity, particularly in contexts where “familialism” prevails (Anouk et al., 2023) (Romero & Ruiz, 2007). The tension between surveillance and freedom defines the boundaries of subjectivity for many women.

Cinema and literature further enrich the discourse on female subjectivity. Films such as Dum Laga Ke Haisha and Anaarkali of Aarah depict women’s struggles with societal norms in small-town India, emphasizing body positivity and resilience (Chatterjee & Viswamohan, 2024). In male-dominated settings, the heroine’s struggle—as portrayed in films like Flightplan—becomes a metaphor for the broader fight for women’s identity and empowerment (Nurwahida et al., 2024).

Thus, in both conservative and digital societies, surveillance is not merely a matter of oppression. It is a dialectical process—shaped by and shaping women’s subjectivity—wherein women, though constrained, remain capable of resistance and transformation. This research paper explores the multidimensional nature of surveillance, maps the terrain between oppression and resistance, and redefines our understanding of women’s agency within these interrelated spheres.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This study adopts a qualitative research design rooted in feminist theory, surveillance studies, and postcolonial critique, aiming to explore how mechanisms of surveillance—familial, religious, state-driven, and digital—mediate women’s subjectivity and resistance in conservative and technologically mediated societies.

Research Design and Theoretical Frameworks

The research is guided by Michel Foucault’s theory of disciplinary power, particularly the concept of the panopticon, which is expanded through an intersectional feminist lens (Crenshaw, 1991). This dual framework helps to unpack how surveillance is not merely coercive but also productive of gendered subjectivities. Additionally, insights from postcolonial feminism inform how colonial legacies continue to structure contemporary patriarchal and surveillance practices in the Global South.

Data Selection and Sources

A purposive sampling strategy was employed to identify and select secondary sources based on thematic relevance to surveillance, gender, digital technologies, resistance, and socio-cultural control mechanisms. The sources include:

Peer-reviewed journal articles from databases such as JSTOR, Scopus, and Sage Journals (published between 2000–2024).

Ethnographic case studies focusing on women’s experiences in India, Iran, and other conservative societies.

Feminist literary texts and memoirs such as Persepolis by Marjane Satrapi, The Handmaid’s Tale by Margaret Atwood, and real-life autobiographical accounts.

Cinematic narratives (e.g., Fire, Lipstick Under My Burkha, Flightplan) that represent resistance to patriarchal surveillance.

Digital media content, including blogs, feminist hashtags (e.g., #MyChoice, #DigitalHifazat), online testimonies, and activist platforms.

Method of Analysis

The research employs thematic analysis and interpretive textual analysis to examine patterns across selected sources.

Objectives

To analyze how surveillance in conservative societies influences the internalization of gender norms among women.

To explore how women resist and navigate subjectivity within digital and physical structures of surveillance.

To examine the interplay between cultural, religious, state, and digital surveillance mechanisms.

Analysis

For instance, Bhattacharya’s (2024) ethnographic interviews with women in Haryana reveal how khap-imposed surveillance fosters both conformity and covert defiance. Respondents expressed how they negotiate identity through secret digital networks, WhatsApp pseudonyms, and private peer circles.

The experience of surveillance is deeply shaped by intersectional identities. For example, Muslim women in India often face dual surveillance—from both community moral codes and state apparatuses under securitized narratives (Khan, 2023). Similarly, Dalit women’s resistance strategies often differ due to their socio-economic marginalization, relying more on collective mobilization than individualized digital assertion (Choi, 2022)(Pawar & Supriya, 2024).

In Iran, the #MyStealthyFreedom campaign stands as a prominent example of digital resistance. Initiated in response to compulsory hijab laws, this movement encourages women to post photographs of themselves without headscarves as a symbolic act of defiance against state-imposed dress codes (Batmanghelichi & Mouri, 2017). The online space offers a rare avenue for Iranian women to articulate dissent, cultivate global awareness, and form digital sisterhoods, despite the persistent threat of state surveillance and legal repercussions (Mehan, 2024).

In India, digital platforms have facilitated grassroots mobilization against institutional patriarchy, particularly within academic spaces. The #PinjraTod (“Break the Cage”) movement emerged as a response to gender-discriminatory curfews imposed on female students in university hostels. It utilizes social media to contest the moral policing of women’s mobility and has galvanized thousands of students to demand structural reform (Lakshmi Nair & Vinayakaselvi, 2023). As (Raj, 2023) argues, such online activism has democratized political participation, allowing marginalized voices to contest gender-based violence and surveillance in both physical and digital spheres.

The analysis reveals that surveillance functions both as a tool of oppression and as a potential catalyst for resistance. Case studies from Iran (Akbari, 2021)and rural India (Bhattacharya, 2024) demonstrate that while surveillance restricts freedoms, it also generates counter-narratives that challenge the status quo. Digital platforms emerge as contested spaces where self-expression is not only regulated but often distorted.

Furthermore, internalized norms—such as beauty ideals (Ville, 2017) or maternal expectations (Milman & Sternadori, 2024)—are not merely adopted by women, but actively negotiated through feminist self-identification. This highlights a reciprocal relationship between surveillance and agency, wherein resistance is embedded within the very structures of control.

Despite their transformative potential, these movements confront significant challenges, including cyber harassment, digital fatigue, and increased surveillance from both state and non-state actors. Nonetheless, feminist digital activism redefines agency in the digital age, positioning surveillance not merely as a tool of control but also as a catalyst for critical awareness and collective resistance. Cinematic and literary representations underscore these complexities, illustrating how women’s subjectivity is expressed through courage, defiance, and vulnerability. These narratives affirm the lived experiences of women who, while navigating oppressive systems, persistently assert their dignity and identity.

CONCLUSION

In both conservative and digital societies, surveillance operates through complex and overlapping social networks that shape women’s subjectivity. These mechanisms enforce discipline and uphold patriarchal control, while simultaneously creating spaces for resistance and empowerment. The internalization of gender norms is not a passive process, but one that involves active negotiation and, at times, subversion.

Through literature, cinema, activism, and digital expression, women reconstruct their self-awareness, asserting subjectivity both within and against the very systems that monitor them. Recognizing this dialectic is essential for developing inclusive policies, ethical technologies, and emancipatory feminist practices in the contemporary world.

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