Weathering the Storm: Adverse Conditions, Adaptive Capacities and Resilience of Cacao Farmers in Disaster-Prone Areas

Farmers’ repeated exposure to disasters is disconcerting. I explored the essences of resilience of cacao farmers as they encountered adverse conditions in disaster prone areas of the CARAGA region, and how they mobilize their adaptive capacities to surmount these adverse conditions. I utilized qualitative descriptive study, interviewed fifteen cacao farmers which I selected through purposive sampling, and applied thematic analysis. I found that cacao farmers experience recurring adverse conditions caused by typhoons, strong winds, soil erosion, nutrient loss, pest infestations, and plant diseases that significantly affect farm productivity and crop survival. Cacao farmers demonstrated adaptive capacities by implementing practical strategies to sustain their farms and livelihoods. It was recognized that while nature cannot be controlled, but farms can be prepared through proper management and environmental stewardship. Resilience among cacao farmers is not a single reaction to disaster, but a long-term process grounded in patience, adaptation, environmental awareness, and sustained commitment to their livelihoods. Farmers may strengthen ecological coping strategies such as maintaining agroforestry systems, planting windbreaks, and avoiding “upaw” or bare farms to reduce soil erosion and protect crops from strong winds and heavy rainfall. Future studies may use regression, mediation analysis, and exploratory factor analysis may be pursued in developing instruments for disaster-related farming.

Weathering the storm, adverse conditions, adaptive capacities, resilience of cacao farmers

1. ACAPS. (2024). Philippines: Floods and heavy rainfall briefing note. https://www.acaps.org [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Adu-Acheampong, R., et al. (2022). Climate variability and cocoa pest dynamics. Crop Protection, 157, 105957. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. Arslan, A., et al. (2020). Climate-smart agriculture adoption among smallholders. Agricultural Systems, 176, 102661. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. Arslan, A., McCarthy, N., Lipper, L., Asfaw, S., & Cattaneo, A. (2020). Adoption and impacts of climate-smart agriculture. Agricultural Systems, 176, 102661. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. ASEAN Coordinating Centre for Humanitarian Assistance on Disaster Management. (2024). Disaster monitoring and response system situation updates: Philippines. https://ahacentre.org [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Asian Development Bank. (2021). Climate risk country profile: Philippines. Asian Development Bank. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Prentice-Hall. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. Berkes, F., & Ross, H. (2013). Community resilience: Toward an integrated approach. Society & Natural Resources, 26(1), 5–20. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. Biggs, R., Schlüter, M., & Schoon, M. L. (Eds.). (2015). Principles for building resilience: Sustaining ecosystem services in social-ecological systems. Cambridge University Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. Birthal, P. S., Hazrana, J., & Negi, D. S. (2021). Effectiveness of farmers’ risk management strategies in smallholder agriculture: Evidence from India. Climatic Change, 169(3–4), 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-021-03271-1 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. Borrelli, P., Robinson, D. A., Fleischer, L. R., et al. (2020). An assessment of global soil erosion by water. Nature Communications, 11, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2022). Thematic analysis: A practical guide. Sage. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Campbell, S., Greenwood, M., Prior, S., Shearer, T., Walkem, K., Young, S., Bywaters, D., & Walker, K. (2020). Purposive sampling: Complex or simple? Research case examples. Journal of Research in Nursing, 25(8), 652–661. https://doi.org/10.1177/1744987120927206. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. Cilas, C., & Bastide, P. (2020). Challenges to cocoa production under climate change. Agronomy, 10(9), 1232. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. Cramb, R., Manivong, V., & Newby, J. (2019). Smallholder farming systems in Southeast Asia: Challenges and opportunities. Agricultural Systems, 173, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2019.02.005 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2024). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (5th ed.). Sage. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. Cruz, M. P., et al. (2022). Satellite-based assessment of Typhoon Odette damage in Caraga Region. Philippine Journal of Science, 151(6A), 2201–2215. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. Department of Agriculture – Regional Field Office XIII. (2023). Regional agricultural damage assessment report. DA-Caraga. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. Department of Science and Technology–Project NOAH. (2019). Flood and landslide hazard maps for Caraga Region. DOST-PAGASA. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. Devendra, C. (2021). Climate change and smallholder agriculture in Asia: Adaptation strategies for sustainable livelihoods. Outlook on Agriculture, 50(2), 125–134. https://doi.org/10.1177/00307270211005064 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. Dinesh, D., et al. (2021). Resilient farming systems under climate change. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 5, 609776. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

22. Douxchamps, S., et al. (2021). Linking social networks and climate resilience in smallholder farming. Global Environmental Change, 67, 102234. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

23. Ensor, J., & Harvey, B. (2015). Social learning and climate change adaptation: Evidence for international development practice. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change, 6(5), 509–522. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.348 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

24. Folke, C., Polasky, S., Rockström, J., et al. (2021). Our future in the Anthropocene biosphere. Ambio, 50(4), 834–869. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-021-01544-8 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

25. Eriksen, S., Schipper, E. L. F., Scoville-Simonds, M., et al. (2021). Adaptation interventions and their effect on vulnerability. World Development, 141, 105383. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

26. FAO. (2021). The State of Food and Agriculture 2021. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

27. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2024). The state of food and agriculture 2024: Climate resilience and food systems. FAO. https://www.fao.org [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

28. Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR) & World Bank. (2023). ThinkHazard! Philippines hazard profile. World Bank Group. https://thinkhazard.org [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

29. Gonzales, M. A., Janaban, M. D., & Martir, S. L. (2024). Production practices and market participation of cacao farmers in Mindanao. Philippine Journal of Crop Science, 49(1), 22–35. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

30. IPCC. (2022). Climate change 2022: Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Cambridge University Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

31. Kvale, S., & Brinkmann, S. (2023). InterViews: Learning the craft of qualitative research interviewing (4th ed.). Sage. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

32. Lahive, F., Handley, L. R., Hadley, P., & Daymond, A. J. (2021). Climate change impacts on cacao physiology and productivity. Agronomy, 11(5), 818. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

33. Lasco, R. D., Delfino, R. J. P., & Pulhin, F. B. (2020). Climate change adaptation for Philippine agriculture: Status and policy directions. Climate, 8(2), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli8020022 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

34. Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Sage. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

35. López-Ridaura, S., Frelat, R., van Wijk, M. T., Valbuena, D., & Krupnik, T. J. (2021). Climate-smart agriculture, farm resilience and food security. Agricultural Systems, 190, 103098. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

36. Magallon, E. C., Patalinghug, M. E., & Tangalin, N. C. (2022). Value chain assessment of cacao production in the Philippines. Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 12(3), 210–221. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

37. Mbow, C., van Noordwijk, M., Luedeling, E., et al. (2019). Agroforestry solutions to climate change challenges. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 37, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

38. Merriam, S. B., & Tisdell, E. J. (2024). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation (5th ed.). Jossey-Bass. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

39. Mindanao Development Authority. (2023). Mindanao development report: Agriculture and climate resilience. MinDA. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

40. Montagnini, F., & Metzel, R. (2017). The contribution of agroforestry to sustainable development goals. Agroforestry Systems, 91(5), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-017-0097-6 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

41. National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council. (2023). Annual disaster report 2023. Office of Civil Defense. https://ndrrmc.gov.ph [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

42. Norris, F. H., Stevens, S. P., Pfefferbaum, B., Wyche, K. F., & Pfefferbaum, R. L. (2008). Community resilience as a metaphor, theory, set of capacities, and strategy for disaster readiness. American Journal of Community Psychology, 41(1–2), 127–150. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-007-9156-6 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

43. Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration. (2023). Annual tropical cyclone tracks and climate outlook for the Philippines. PAGASA. https://bagong.pagasa.dost.gov.ph [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

44. Panagos, P., Ballabio, C., Borrelli, P., et al. (2021). Global rainfall erosivity assessment. Science of the Total Environment, 755, 142542. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

45. Patton, M. Q. (2023). Qualitative research & evaluation methods (5th ed.). Sage. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

46. Philippine Council for Agriculture, Aquatic and Natural Resources Research and Development. (2022). Philippine cacao industry roadmap updates. PCAARRD-DOST. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

47. Philippine Council for Agriculture, Aquatic and Natural Resources Research and Development. (2022). Philippine cacao industry roadmap updates. PCAARRD-DOST. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

48. Philippine Statistics Authority. (2022). Value of production losses due to natural disasters in Philippine agriculture (2010–2022). PSA. https://psa.gov.ph [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

49. Reed, M. S., Vella, S., Challies, E., et al. (2018). A theory of participation: What makes stakeholder and public engagement in environmental management work? Restoration Ecology, 26(S1), S7–S17. https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.12541 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

50. Ruben, R., & Pender, J. (2020). Rural livelihood strategies and resilience under climate variability in Southeast Asia. World Development, 135, 105062. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105062 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

51. Schroth, G., et al. (2023). Climate change adaptation in cocoa agroforestry systems. Agronomy for Sustainable Development. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

52. Schroth, G., Läderach, P., Martinez-Valle, A., Bunn, C., & Jassogne, L. (2023). Vulnerability to climate change of cocoa agroforestry systems. Agronomy for Sustainable Development. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

53. Seidman, I. (2024). Interviewing as qualitative research: A guide for researchers in education and the social sciences (6th ed.). Teachers College Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

54. Southwick, S. M., Bonanno, G. A., Masten, A. S., Panter-Brick, C., & Yehuda, R. (2014). Resilience definitions, theory, and challenges: Interdisciplinary perspectives. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 5(1), 25338. https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v5.25338 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

55. Tandog, A. M., & Condes-Tandog, A. (2023). Climate variability and livelihood adaptation among upland farmers in Southeast Asia. Asian Journal of Agriculture and Development, 20(1), 45–60. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

56. Thornton, P. K., et al. (2020). Climate change and smallholder agriculture resilience. Global Food Security, 26, 100382. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

57. Ungar, M. (2021). Multisystemic resilience: Adaptation and transformation in contexts of change. Oxford University Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

58. Waha, K., et al. (2018). Agricultural diversification as adaptation strategy. Global Environmental Change, 48, 191–202. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

59. Wainaina, P., Tongruksawattana, S., & Qaim, M. (2021). Trade-offs in climate-smart cocoa intensification. Food Policy, 99, 101979. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

60. World Bank. (2021). Climate Change Knowledge Portal: Philippines country profile. World Bank Group. https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/country/philippines [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

• Geophysical Investigation for Marl Exploration Using Vertical Electrical Sounding in Akpokponke Ibii Afikpo Southeast Nigeria
• Logging Data-Driven Geomechanical Parameter Estimation Using Advanced Machine Learning Techniques
• Seismic Refraction Tomography for Engineering Site Characterization in Awka, Southeastern Nigeria
• Design of a Competency Framework for BIM-Based Collaboration among Construction Professionals in Delta State
• Aeromagnetic Investigation of the Subsurface Sturctures in Parts of Niger Delta, Nigeria