Developments and Challenges of TVET in Kenya Towards Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) has increasingly gained global and national recognition as a vital pathway for skills development, youth employment, poverty reduction, and sustainable development. Anchored in Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4) of the United Nations 2030 Agenda, this paper examines the developments and challenges of TVET in Kenya between 2015 and 2024, focusing on its contribution to achieving SDG 4 targets. Using a desk review methodology, the study analyzes government policy documents, national economic surveys, and scholarly literature across four key areas: policy and historical evolution, institutional growth, enrolment trends by gender, and financing mechanisms. Findings indicate that Kenya has made considerable progress in expanding the TVET sub-sector through increased public investment and private sector participation. Student enrolment has risen significantly, with notable improvement in female participation, gradually narrowing the gender gap. Government financing through the Higher Education Loans Board (HELB), institutional capitation, and the student-Centered Funding Model has enhanced access and equity for disadvantaged learners. Policy and legislative reforms, including the TVET Act No. 29 of 2013 and the Competency-Based Education and Training (CBET) curriculum, have strengthened the sector’s regulatory and curricular framework and improved alignment with labour market demands. However, challenges such as inadequate funding, poor infrastructure, shortage of qualified trainers, curriculum–labour market mismatch, persistent gender disparities, negative societal perceptions, and limited inclusion of learners with disabilities continue to hinder effectiveness. The paper recommends increased equitable funding, stronger industry partnerships, trainer development, gender-responsive interventions, and integration of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) principles into TVET curricula.

TVET, SDG 4, vocational education, Kenya, skills development

1. Akala, B. M. (2021). Successes and challenges of implementing the competency-based curriculum in Kenya. Research in Educational Policy and Management, 3(1), 1–18. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Association for the Development of Education in Africa (ADEA). (2020). The state of technical and vocational education and training in Africa. ADEA. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. Constitution of Kenya. (2010). National Council for Law Reporting. Government Printer. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. Darol, A., Farida, N., & Khairani, A. (2020). Vocational education and lifelong learning: Global perspectives. Journal of Technical Education and Training, 12(3), 1–12. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. Erima, J. (2021). Rebranding national polytechnics in Kenya: Implications for TVET education. African Journal of TVET, 4(1), 22–35. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Fofana, I., Chitiga-Mabugu, M., & Mabugu, R. E. (2023). Is Africa on track to ending poverty by 2030? Journal of African Economies, 32(Supplement_2), ii87–ii98. https://doi.org/10.1093/jae/ejac043 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. Higher Education Fund (HEF). (2023). Student-centred funding model. Government of Kenya. https://www.hef.co.ke [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. Imana, G. (2020). Colonial education policy and its influence on vocational training in Kenya. East African Journal of Education Studies, 3(1), 44–56. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. International Labour Organization (ILO). (2023). TVET modernization and youth employment in Kenya. ILO Country Office for Kenya. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. International Labour Organization (ILO), UNESCO, & World Bank. (2023). Skills for the 21st century: Reconceptualizing TVET for inclusive growth. ILO/UNESCO/World Bank Joint Report. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. Kamunge, J. M. (1988). Report of the Presidential Working Party on education and manpower training for the next decade and beyond. Government Printer. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. Kanwar, A., Balasubramanian, K., & Carr, A. (2019). Changing the TVET paradigm: New models for lifelong learning. International Journal of Training Research, 17(1), 54–68. https://doi.org/10.1080/14480220.2019.1629722 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Karemu, G., & George, G. (2014). Challenges and reforms in TVET delivery in Kenya. Journal of Education and Practice, 5(12), 1–9. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development (KICD). (2017). Basic education curriculum framework. Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. Kenya National Qualifications Authority. (2023). Kenya National Qualifications Framework annual report 2022/2023. KNQA. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. Kenya Institute of Public Policy Research and Analysis (KIPPRA). (2023). Towards attainment of gender equality in Kenya's education sector. KIPPRA. https://kippra.or.ke [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. Macharia, J., & Ondabu, I. T. (2025). Government capitation and enrolment in public TVET institutions in Kenya. African Journal of Education and Practice, 7(1), 12–24. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. Malechwanzi, J. M. (2019). Financing TVET in Kenya: Challenges and prospects. Kenya Journal of Technical and Vocational Education and Training, 2(1), 33–47. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. Marope, M., Chakroun, B., & Holmes, K. (2015). Unleashing the potential: Transforming technical and vocational education and training. UNESCO Publishing. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. Ministry of Education, Kenya. (2012). A policy framework for education and training: Reforming education and training in Kenya. Sessional Paper No. 14 of 2012. Government Printer. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. Ministry of Education, Kenya. (2018). Kenya National Education Sector Strategic Plan (NESSP) 2018–2022. Government Printer. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

22. Mochere, M. G., & Aluko, F. R. (2018). Perceptions and attitudes toward TVET in Kenya: Implications for policy and practice. Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 70(4), 547–562. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

23. Mujuri, B., & Kathomi, I. (2025). The role of technical and vocational education relative to academic schooling in the transition of the youth to labour markets in Kenya. Gates Open Research, 9, 51. https://doi.org/10.12688/gatesopenres.16354.1 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

24. Mugo, J. (2018). Expanding TVET enrolment in Kenya: Progress and challenges. Kenya Education Research and Development Forum. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

25. Murgor, T. K., Changa'ch, J., & Keter, J. (2014). Accessibility of TVET for persons with disabilities in Kenya: Policy and practice. Journal of Education and Practice, 5(38), 80–89. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

26. Ngure, S. W. (2022). Evolution of TVET in Kenya: From then to now. Journal of Education and Practice, 13(33), 162–175. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

27. Nyongesa, S., & Makokha, E. (2021). Influence of vocational education and training on graduates' employability in Kenya. African Educational Research Journal, 9(2), 481–488. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

28. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2018). Seven questions about apprenticeships: Answers from international experience. OECD Reviews of Vocational Education and Training. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264306486-en [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

29. Osawa, W., Langat, K., Ambuli, M., & Wato, B. (2023). Assessment of Kenyan TVET institutions' preparedness to implement competency-based education and training. Kenya Journal of Technical and Vocational Education and Training, 6(1), 44–58. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

30. Othoo, H., Sika, J., Ojuok, J., & Opiyo, R. (2022). Challenges of the internal efficiency of science and technology education training programmes in TVET institutions in Nyanza Region, Kenya. European Journal of Education Studies, 9(6), 76–92. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

31. Republic of Kenya. (1964). Report of the Kenya Education Commission (Ominde Commission). Government Printer. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

32. Republic of Kenya. (1971). Report of the Commission of Inquiry (Public Service Structure and Remuneration) (Ndegwa Commission). Government Printer. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

33. Republic of Kenya. (1984). The 8-4-4 system of education: Policy guidelines. Government Printer. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

34. Republic of Kenya. (2007). Kenya Vision 2030: A globally competitive and prosperous Kenya. Ministry of Planning and National Development. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

35. Republic of Kenya. (2012). Sessional Paper No. 14 of 2012 on reforming education and training in Kenya. Government Printer. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

36. Republic of Kenya. (2018a). Economic survey 2018. Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

37. Republic of Kenya. (2018b). Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) curriculum reform framework. Ministry of Education. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

38. Republic of Kenya. (2022). Education sector report 2022/2023. National Treasury. https://newsite.treasury.go.ke [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

39. Sifuna, D. N. (2020). Challenges facing TVET in Kenya: A historical and contemporary perspective. Journal of Education and Society, 8(2), 11–24. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

40. Sifuna, D. N., & Otiende, J. E. (2006). An introductory history of education. University of Nairobi Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

41. Simiyu, J. W. (2009). Challenges facing technical, industrial, vocational and entrepreneurship training (TIVET) institutions in Kenya. Journal of Continuing Education and Lifelong Learning, 1(1), 1–14. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

42. Technical and Vocational Education and Training Authority (TVETA). (2022). Kenya journal of technical and vocational education and training, Vol. 5 & 6. TVETA. https://www.tveta.go.ke [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

43. Tirus, M. (2019). Competency-based education and training and labour market alignment in Kenya. Kenya Journal of TVET, 2(1), 5–19. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

44. Todd, L., & Dunbar, R. (2018). TVET and the Education for All initiative: Implications for developing countries. International Journal of Educational Development, 63, 12–20. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

45. UN General Assembly. (2015). Transforming our world: The 2030 agenda for sustainable development (A/RES/70/1). United Nations. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

46. UNESCO. (2012). Shanghai consensus: Recommendations and conclusions from the third international congress on technical and vocational education and training. UNESCO Publishing. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

47. UNESCO. (2015a). Recommendation concerning technical and vocational education and training (TVET). UNESCO Publishing. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000245178 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

48. UNESCO. (2015b). Education 2030: Incheon declaration and framework for action. UNESCO Publishing. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

49. UNESCO. (2016). Strategy for technical and vocational education and training (TVET) 2016–2021. UNESCO Publishing. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000245239 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

50. UNESCO. (2021). Recommendation on the ethics of artificial intelligence and TVET's role in the digital economy. UNESCO Publishing. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

51. World Bank. (2022). Kenya education public expenditure review. World Bank Group. https://www.worldbank.org [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

• The Indirect Effect of Liquidity and Activity on Company Value with Profitability as an Intervening Variable
• Effect of Financial Skills, Knowledge, and Attitude on The Financial Behaviour of Clergy
• A Decade of Review: Trends in Budget Execution and Financial Performance of Development Projects in Tanzania (2014/15-2023/24)
• The Influence of Pre-Project Planning on the Budget Absorption Rate of Public Funded Infrastructure Projects in Kenya a Comparative Case Study of Narok, Migori, and Kisii County Government Projects
• Assessment of Factors Influencing Digital Transformation in Hotels’ Facility Management in Abuja Metropolis, Nigeria