Artificial Intelligence and Research Capacity Among Women in Adult and Non-Formal Education in Nigeria: A Position Paper on Opportunities and Constraints

Artificial intelligence is increasingly reshaping educational research worldwide by improving efficiency, analytical depth, and research quality. However, its application remains uneven across educational sectors, among women in Adult and Non-Formal Education receiving limited empirical attention, particularly in low-resource contexts such as Nigeria. This position paper examines the opportunities and constraints associated with the use of artificial intelligence for strengthening research capacity within these marginalised education sectors. Drawing on existing empirical and theoretical literature, the paper explores current patterns of AI use, assesses its contribution to research quality and efficiency, and analyses the institutional, infrastructural, ethical, digital access, and gender-related challenges shaping AI adoption. Guided by digital divide theory and gender-technology perspectives, the analysis highlights how weak infrastructure, limited institutional support, low digital literacy, and persistent gender inequalities restrict meaningful engagement with AI-enabled research tools. The paper argues that while artificial intelligence holds significant potential to enhance research accuracy, productivity, and policy relevance, its benefits cannot be realised without context-sensitive, inclusive, and ethically grounded strategies. Thus, centering on women in Adult and Non-Formal Education in the discussion, this paper repositions these sectors as analytically important to global debates on artificial intelligence and research development. It contributes to educational research by offering a grounded perspective from Nigeria and by advancing a clear call for targeted interventions that align technological innovation with local educational realities and equity concerns.

Artificial Intelligence, Research Capacity, Women in Education, Adult Education, Non-Formal Education, Nigeria

1. Aguboshim, F. C., Obiokafor, I. N., & Nwokedi, C. C. (2022). Closing ICT usability gaps for Nigerian women and girls: Strategies for reducing gender inequality. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 15(1), 056–063. https://doi.org/10.30574/wjarr.2022.15.1.0665 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Akpala, I. (2018). Adult and Non-Formal Education in Nigeria: From Access to Quality for National Development. Journal of Pristine, 14(1), 133–144. https://globalacademicgroup.com/journals/pristine/adult%20and%20non-formal%20education%20in%20nigeria.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. Alqahtani, T., Badreldin, H. A., Alrashed, M., Alshaya, A. I., Alghamdi, S. S., bin Saleh, K., Alowais, S. A., Alshaya, O. A., Rahman, I., Al Yami, M. S., & Albekairy, A. M. (2023). The emergent role of artificial intelligence, natural learning processing, and large language models in higher education and research. Research in Social and Administrative Pharmacy, 19(8). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sapharm.2023.05.016 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. Bahroun, Z., Anane, C., Ahmed, V., & Zacca, A. (2023). Transforming Education: A Comprehensive Review of Generative Artificial Intelligence in Educational Settings through Bibliometric and Content Analysis. Sustainability, 15(17), 12983. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151712983 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. Bond, M., Khosravi, H., Laat, M. de, Bergdahl, N., Negrea, V., Oxley, E., Pham, P., Chong, S. W., & Siemens, G. (2024). A meta systematic review of artificial intelligence in higher education: a call for increased ethics, collaboration, and rigour. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 21(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-023-00436-z [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Bozkurt, A., Karadeniz, A., Baneres, D., Guerrero-Roldán, A. E., & Rodríguez, M. E. (2021). Artificial Intelligence and Reflections from Educational Landscape: A Review of AI Studies in Half a Century. Sustainability, 13(2), 800. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13020800 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. Cabanillas-García, J. L. (2025). International trends and influencing factors in the integration of artificial intelligence in education with the application of qualitative methods. Informatics, 12(3), 61. https://doi.org/10.3390/informatics12030061 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. Chen, L., Chen, P., & Lin, Z. (2020). Artificial Intelligence in Education: a Review. IEEE Access, 8(8), 75264–75278. https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2020.2988510 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. Dhiman, T., Chauhan, V., Kumar, A., Vasantha, M., & Kumar, A. (2025). Ethical Crossroads: Navigating Data Privacy, Bias, Accountability and Sustainability in AI-Driven Education. Open Access Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 1(3), 69–77. https://doi.org/10.47760/oajmr.2025.v01i03.007 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. Dosunmu, A. G. (2020). Women and status of lifelong learning in Nigeria. Global Education Systems, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-43042-9_48-1 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. Faucher, M. A., Sing, E., Harris, S., Hutson, E., & Hoelscher, S. H. (2025). Artificial Intelligence and Competency-Based Education: A Rapid Scoping Review. Journal of Midwifery & Women’s Health, 10.1111/jmwh.70009. https://doi.org/10.1111/jmwh.70009 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. Festus, O., & Emmanuel, O. B. (2024). Sociocultural and digital communication challenges in AI adoption for classroom communication: Insights from nigerian colleges of education. Language, Technology, and Social Media. https://doi.org/10.70211/ltsm.v3i1.115 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Guo, S., Zheng, Y., & Zhai, X. (2024). Artificial intelligence in education research during 2013–2023: A review based on bibliometric analysis. Education and Information Technologies. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-12491-8 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. Judijanto, L. (2025). Beyond access: Cultural, ethical, and infrastructural challenges of AI in marginalised education contexts. European Journal of Contemporary Education and E-Learning, 3(6), 83–98. https://doi.org/10.59324/ejceel.2025.3(6).07 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. Luwoye, A., Ahmed, A. T., Yusuf, O. I., & Abdulraheem, J. A. (2024). Challenges and opportunities of artificial intelligence integration into nigerian university system. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence for Digital Marketing, 1(5), 48–54. https://doi.org/10.61796/ijaifd.v1i5.267 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. Mansur, S. (2025). AI as A catalyst in education, adult learning, and digital literacy. International Journal for Multidisciplinary Research, 7(4). https://doi.org/10.36948/ijfmr.2025.v07i04.54198 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. Mkpa, I. O., Erim, C. M., & Anam, E. (2023). Women participation in adult literacy programs for sustainable development in Nigeria: implication for national development. KIU Journal of Education, 3(2), 156–165. https://doi.org/10.59568/kjed-2023-3-2-16 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. Ocen, S., Elasu, J., Aarakit, S. M., & Olupot, C. (2025). Artificial intelligence in higher education institutions: review of innovations, opportunities and challenges. Frontiers in Education, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2025.1530247 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. Oyekunle, O. B., Gbenga-Julius, O., & Adeeko, J. D. (2024). Unlocking Opportunities Exploring Success Factors and Challenges of Digital Integration in Vocational and Technical Education in Nigeria. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science, VIII(XII), 216–228. https://doi.org/10.47772/ijriss.2024.8120017 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. Oyigbo, D. N., Ngwu, P. N. C., & Nwachukwu, R. U. (2021). Non-formal education and economic growth in Nigeria: The need for a system-wide programme development framework. International Review of Education, 67(5), 687–709. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-021-09920-y [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. Paek, S., & Kim, N. (2021). Analysis of Worldwide Research Trends on the Impact of Artificial Intelligence in Education. Sustainability, 13(14), 7941. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13147941 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

22. Rabiu, A. A., Bawa, K., & Saminu, S. (2025). Artificial Intelligence Adoption for Skills Development in Nigeria: A Systematic Review and Roadmap for TVET Transformation. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science, 9(8), 645–657. https://doi.org/10.47772/ijriss.2025.908000051 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

23. Ragnedda, M., & Muschert, G. W. (2013). The digital divide: The internet and social inequality in international perspective. Routledge., 344. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203069769 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

24. Saidu, M. S., Salawu, M. O., Chizoba, O. G., & Biu, F. A. I. (2025). E-Facilitation in Nigeria tertiary institutions: Challeges and way forward. International Journal of African Sustainable Development Research. https://doi.org/10.70382/tijasdr.v08i2.042 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

25. Samuel, N., Akorede, O. J., & Karimu, A. Y. (2025). Artificial Intelligence for Inclusive Education in Nigeria: Systemic Challenges and Bridging the 21st Century Digital Divide. Federal University Gusau Faculty of Education Journal, 2(2), 157–165. https://doi.org/10.64348/zije.2025142 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

26. Strielkowski, W., Grebennikova, V., Lisovskiy, A., Rakhimova, G., & Vasileva, T. (2024). AI-driven adaptive learning for sustainable educational transformation. Sustainable Development, 33(2). https://doi.org/10.1002/sd.3221 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

27. Sufian, F. D., Nico, G., & Azzarri, C. (2023). Examining the gender digital divide: A case study from rural nigeria. International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). https://doi.org/10.2499/p15738coll2.136918 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

28. Suleiman, M. S. (2023). Bridging the digital gender divide for peace and development in nigeria: Challenges, policies, and collaborative solutions for sustainable peace. International Journal of Peace, Education and Development, 11(2). https://doi.org/10.30954/2454-9525.02.2023.2 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

29. Vesna, L. (2025). Digital divide in ai-powered education: Challenges and solutions for equitable learning. Journal of Information Systems Engineering and Management, 10(21s), 300–308. https://doi.org/10.52783/jisem.v10i21s.3327 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

30. Yusuf, A., Pervin, N., Román‐González, M., & Noor, N. M. (2024). Generative AI in education and research: A systematic mapping review. Review of Education, 12(2). https://doi.org/10.1002/rev3.3489 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

31. Yusuf, L. (2023). Adult and Non-Formal Education Programmes for the Empowerment of Rural Women in Taraba State, Nigeria. Global Educational Research Journal, 11(4), 1–11. Springer Journal. https://springjournals.net/articles/513605052023 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

32. Zawacki-Richter, O., Marín, V. I., Bond, M., & Gouverneur, F. (2019). Systematic review of research on artificial intelligence applications in higher education – where are the educators? International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 16(1), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-019-0171-0 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]