From Micro-Credentials to Online Income: A Conceptual Framework for Digital Netnomad Learning and Income-Generation Readiness among Adult Learners

Online labour platforms are forging new avenues for adults to earn supplemental or primary income, but access to a platform alone does not develop the skills, confidence, or credibility needed to get and do paid work. This concept paper proposes Digital NetNomad, an evaluated micro-credential to prepare adult learners for legitimate platform-based income activities. It proposes a direct-effect model in which five independent variables, namely, industry-relevant course content, experiential platform-based learning, digital platform self-efficacy, flexible learning design, and micro-credential recognition, predict online income-generation readiness. There is no mediator or moderator. The framework is based on recent work on microcredentials, adult online learning, digital self-efficacy, signalling in the labour market and online freelancing. Digital NetNomad is suggested as a 6-8 week course in opportunity scanning, positioning your services, platform selection, profile and portfolio development, proposal writing, pricing, client communication, project delivery, payment security, intellectual property, taxation and fraud prevention. In competency-based assessment learners must develop a service package ready for implementation by the client and complete a simulated or supervised client task. A quantitative cross-sectional survey in the future is proposed among adult learners enrolled in or completing the course. The five direct relationships can be tested by multiple regression or by the partial least squares structural equation modelling. This paper presents a quantifiable model that links micro-credential design with readiness to search, obtain, deliver and sustain online work. It's designed to assess readiness not guaranteed income, as income is also dependent on competition, market demand, client choices, platform algorithms and consistent worker performance.

Keywords

adult learners; digital freelancing; gig economy; micro-credentials; online income

Downloads

PDF JATS XML

References

1. Ahmad, R., Sharif, F., Ahmad, S., Gul, A., & Abdirasulovna, Z. A. (2024). Does the digital economy improve female employment? A cross-country panel data analysis. Heliyon, 10(13). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e33535 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Ahsan, K., Akbar, S., Kam, B., & Abdulrahman, M. D. (2023). Implementation of micro-credentials in higher education: A systematic literature review. Education and Information Technologies, 28(10), 13505–13540. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-023-11739-z [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. AlHamad, Ma. Q. M., Akour, I., Alshurideh, M. T., Al-Hamad, A. Q., Kurdi, B. A., & Alzoubi, H. M. (2021). Predicting the intention to use google glass: A comparative approach using machine learning models and PLS-SEM. International Journal of Data and Network Science, 311–320. https://doi.org/10.5267/j.ijdns.2021.6.002 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. Alshurideh, M. T., & Kurdi, B. A. (2022). Factors affecting social networks acceptance: An extension to the technology acceptance model using PLS-SEM and Machine Learning Approach. International Journal of Data and Network Science, 7(1), 489–494. https://doi.org/10.5267/j.ijdns.2022.8.010 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. Bean, M., Grant, S., Hardaker, G., & Ward, R. (2023). Signals and noise: communicating achievement through alternative credentials. Huddersfield Research Portal (University of Huddersfield), 40(4), 305–316. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijilt-02-2023-0020 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Bruguera, C., Serra, C. P., Peters, M., & Bertran, À. F. (2024). Micro-credentials and soft skills in online education: the employers’ perspective. Distance Education, 46(1), 56–76. https://doi.org/10.1080/01587919.2024.2435645 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. Caliendo, M., Kritikos, A. S., Rodriguez, D. P., & Stier, C. (2023). Self-efficacy and entrepreneurial performance of start-ups. Small Business Economics, 61(3), 1027–1051. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-022-00728-0 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. Carranza, E., Garlick, R., Orkin, K., & Rankin, N. (2022). Job Search and Hiring with Limited Information about Workseekers’ Skills. American Economic Review, 112(11), 3547–3583. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20200961 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. D’Cruz, P., Du, S., Noronha, E., Parboteeah, K. P., Trittin‐Ulbrich, H., & Whelan, G. (2022). Technology, Megatrends and Work: Thoughts on the Future of Business Ethics. Journal of Business Ethics, 180(3), 879–902. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-022-05240-9 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. Desmarchelier, R., & Cary, L. J. (2022). Toward just and equitable micro-credentials: an Australian perspective. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 19(1), 25–25. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-022-00332-y [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. Etim, E., & Daramola, O. (2023). Investigating the E-Readiness of Informal Sector Operators to Utilize Web Technology Portal. Sustainability, 15(4), 3449–3449. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15043449 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. Faza, A., & Lestari, I. A. (2025). Self-Regulated Learning in the Digital Age: A Systematic Review of Strategies, Technologies, Benefits, and Challenges. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 26(2), 23–58. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v26i2.8119 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Fazio, M. V., Freund, R., & Novella, R. (2024). Do entrepreneurial skills unlock opportunities for online freelancing? Experimental evidence from El Salvador. Journal of Development Economics, 172, 103363–103363. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2024.103363 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. Fernández, A., Gómez, B., Binjaku, K., & Meçe, E. K. (2023). Digital transformation initiatives in higher education institutions: A multivocal literature review. Education and Information Technologies, 28(10), 12351–12382. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-022-11544-0 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. Grohmann, R., Pereira, G., Guerra, A., Abílio, L. C., Moreschi, B., & Jurno, A. C. (2022). Platform scams: Brazilian workers’ experiences of dishonest and uncertain algorithmic management. New Media & Society, 24(7), 1611–1631. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448221099225 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. Gussek, L., & Wiesche, M. (2023). IT Professionals in the Gig Economy. Business & Information Systems Engineering, 65(5), 555–575. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12599-023-00812-z [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. Ha, N. T. N., Spittle, M., Watt, A., & Dyke, N. V. (2022). A systematic literature review of micro-credentials in higher education: a non-zero-sum game. Higher Education Research & Development, 42(6), 1527–1548. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2022.2146061 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. Hänninen, M., & Smedlund, A. (2021). Same Old Song with a Different Melody: The Paradox of Market Reach and Financial Performance on Digital Platforms. Journal of Management Studies, 58(7), 1832–1868. https://doi.org/10.1111/joms.12701 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. Huang, Y. (2023). Examining the relationship between peer support and foreign language emotions in online learning: the mediating effect of self-efficacy. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1148472–1148472. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1148472 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. kässi, otto, & Lehdonvirta, V. (2022). Do Microcredentials Help New Workers Enter the Market? The Journal of Human Resources, 59(4), 1284–1318. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.0519-10226r3 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. Kässi, O., Lehdonvirta, V., & Stephany, F. (2021). How many online workers are there in the world? A data-driven assessment. Open Research Europe, 1, 53–53. https://doi.org/10.12688/openreseurope.13639.4 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

22. Kawuki, J., Gatasi, G., & Sserwanja, Q. (2022). Women empowerment and health insurance utilisation in Rwanda: a nationwide cross-sectional survey. BMC Women s Health, 22(1), 378–378. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-022-01976-8 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

23. Knapke, J. M., Hildreth, L., Molano, J. R. V., Schuckman, S., Blackard, J. T., Johnstone, M., Kopras, E. J., Lamkin, M., Lee, R. C., Kues, J. R., & Mendell, A. (2024). Andragogy in Practice: Applying a Theoretical Framework to Team Science Training in Biomedical Research. British Journal of Biomedical Science, 81, 12651–12651. https://doi.org/10.3389/bjbs.2024.12651 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

24. Kumar, J. A., Richard, R. J., Osman, S., & Lowrence, K. (2022). Micro-credentials in leveraging emergency remote teaching: the relationship between novice users’ insights and identity in Malaysia. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 19(1), 18–18. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-022-00323-z [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

25. Loock, V. S., Fleischer, J., Scheunemann, A., Froese, L., Teich, K., & Wirth, J. (2022). Narrowing down dimensions of e-learning readiness in continuing vocational education — perspectives from the adult learner. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 1033524–1033524. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1033524 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

26. Lu, Y., Hong, X., & Xiao, L. (2022). Toward High-Quality Adult Online Learning: A Systematic Review of Empirical Studies. Sustainability, 14(4), 2257–2257. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14042257 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

27. Magno, F., Cassia, F., & Ringle, C. M. (2022). A brief review of partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) use in quality management studies. The TQM Journal, 36(5), 1242–1251. https://doi.org/10.1108/tqm-06-2022-0197 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

28. Manosuthi, N., Lee, J., & Han, H. (2021). Causal-predictive model of customer lifetime/influence value: mediating roles of memorable experiences and customer engagement in hotels and airlines. PolyU Institutional Research Archive (Hong Kong Polytechnic University), 38(5), 461–477. https://doi.org/10.1080/10548408.2021.1940422 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

29. Mark, B., & M., D., Josep. (2024). Exploring gaps in the quality assurance of micro-credentials: a global mapping review of current practices. BIS-Verlag Der Universität Oldenburg. https://doi.org/10.25619/2bwhvw68 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

30. McGreal, R., Mackintosh, W., Cox, G., & Olcott, D. (2022). Bridging the Gap: Micro-credentials for Development. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 23(3), 288–302. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v23i3.6696 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

31. Memon, M. A., Ramayah, T., Ting, H., & Cheah, J. (2024). PURPOSIVE SAMPLING: A REVIEW AND GUIDELINES FOR QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH. Journal of Applied Structural Equation Modeling, 9(1), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.47263/jasem.9(1)01 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

32. OECD. (2023). Micro-credentials for lifelong learning and employability. In Education policy pointers. https://doi.org/10.1787/9c4b7b68-en [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

33. Pirkkalainen, H., Sood, I., Napoles, C. P., Kukkonen, A., & Camilleri, A. (2022). How might micro-credentials influence institutions and empower learners in higher education? Educational Research, 65(1), 40–63. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131881.2022.2157302 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

34. Raby, N. D. L., Cea, P., Fuente‐Mella, H. de la, & Ríos-Vásquez, G. (2025). Exploring Job Satisfaction in the Platform Economy: A Multidimensional Study of Mobile Digital Platform Workers in Chile. Sustainability, 17(2), 532–532. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17020532 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

35. Ralston, S. J. (2020). Higher Education’s Microcredentialing Craze: a Postdigital-Deweyan Critique. Postdigital Science and Education, 3(1), 83–101. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42438-020-00121-8 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

36. Ruijter, A. de, Cats, O., & Lint, H. van. (2024). Ridesourcing platforms thrive on socio-economic inequality. Scientific Reports, 14(1), 7371–7371. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-57540-x [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

37. Sæther, E. A., Eide, A. E., & Bjørgum, Ø. (2021). Sustainability among Norwegian maritime firms: Green strategy and innovation as mediators of long‐term orientation and emission reduction. Business Strategy and the Environment, 30(5), 2382–2395. https://doi.org/10.1002/bse.2752 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

38. Selvaratnam, R., & Sankey, M. (2021). An integrative literature review of the implementation of micro-credentials in higher education: Implications for practice in Australasia. Journal of Teaching and Learning for Graduate Employability, 12(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.21153/jtlge2021vol12no1art942 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

39. Sengupta, N., Chawla, N., Agarwal, A., & Evans, J. A. (2023). Do online certifications improve job market outcomes? Evidence from an IT skills certification platform in India. Information Economics and Policy, 65, 101067–101067. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infoecopol.2023.101067 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

40. Shore, A., & Dinning, T. (2023). Developing student’s skills and work readiness: an experiential learning framework. Journal of Work-Applied Management, 15(2), 188–199. https://doi.org/10.1108/jwam-02-2023-0016 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

41. Stephany, F., & Teutloff, O. (2023). What is the price of a skill? The value of complementarity. Research Policy, 53(1), 104898–104898. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2023.104898 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

42. Tamoliūnė, G., Greenspon, R., Teresevičienė, M., Volungevičienė, A., Trepulė, E., & Daukšienė, E. (2023). Exploring the potential of micro-credentials: A systematic literature review. Frontiers in Education, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2022.1006811 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

43. Tan, Z. M., Aggarwal, N., Cowls, J., Morley, J., Taddeo, M., & Floridi, L. (2021). The ethical debate about the gig economy: A review and critical analysis. Technology in Society, 65, 101594–101594. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2021.101594 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

44. Ulfert, A., & Schmidt, I. (2022). Assessing digital self-efficacy: Review and scale development. Computers & Education, 191, 104626–104626. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104626 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

45. Varadarajan, S., Koh, J. H. L., & Daniel, B. K. (2023). A systematic review of the opportunities and challenges of micro-credentials for multiple stakeholders: learners, employers, higher education institutions and government. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 20(1), 13–13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-023-00381-x [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

46. Ward, R., Grant, S., Larsen, M. N., & Giovacchini, K. (2024). The Universal Micro-Credential Framework: The Role of Badges, Micro-Credentials, Skills Profiling, and Design Patterns in Developing Interdisciplinary Learning and Assessment Paths for Computing Education. IEEE Transactions on Education, 67(6), 897–906. https://doi.org/10.1109/te.2024.3486016 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

47. Weigold, A., & Weigold, I. K. (2021). Measuring confidence engaging in computer activities at different skill levels: Development and validation of the Brief Inventory of Technology Self-Efficacy (BITS). Computers & Education, 169, 104210–104210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2021.104210 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

48. Wheelahan, L., & Moodie, G. (2021). Gig qualifications for the gig economy: micro-credentials and the ‘hungry mile.’ Higher Education, 83(6), 1279–1295. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-021-00742-3 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

49. Wilkins, D. J., Muralidhar, S. H., Meijer, M., Lascău, L., & Lindley, S. (2022). Gigified Knowledge Work: Understanding Knowledge Gaps When Knowledge Work and On-Demand Work Intersect. 6, 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1145/3512940 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

50. Xavier, M., & Meneses, J. (2021). The Tensions Between Student Dropout and Flexibility in Learning Design: The Voices of Professors in Open Online Higher Education. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 22(4), 72–88. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v23i1.5652 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

51. Zhang, F., Ji, Y., Lv, H., Zhang, Y., Blythe, P., & Jialiang, F. (2022). Travel satisfaction of delivery electric two-wheeler riders: Evidence from Nanjing, China. Transportation Research Part A Policy and Practice, 162, 253–266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2022.06.001 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

From Micro-Credentials to Online Income: A Conceptual Framework for Digital Netnomad Learning and Income-Generation Readiness among Adult Learners

Authors

Article Information

Publication Timeline

Abstract

Keywords

Downloads

References

Metrics

Views & Downloads

Similar Articles