Direct Language Learning Strategy Use among Malay Undergraduates Learning Mandarin at a Malaysian Public University

This study examines how Malay undergraduates at a Malaysian public university use direct language learning strategies when learning Mandarin as a foreign language. Drawing on Oxford’s (1990) classification, the study focuses on three direct strategy categories: memory, cognitive, and compensation strategies. Survey data were collected from 445 students, comprising 101 males and 344 females, who were enrolled in Introductory Mandarin Levels I, II, and III. Descriptive statistics, repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA), and Bonferroni-adjusted pairwise comparisons were used to identify overall and group-specific patterns in strategy use. The findings showed that all three strategy categories were used at a moderate level. Memory strategies recorded the highest mean score (M = 3.1061, SD = 0.57390), followed by cognitive strategies (M = 2.8931, SD = 0.59880) and compensation strategies (M = 2.8397, SD = 0.65714). Repeated-measures analysis further indicated that memory strategies were used significantly more often than cognitive and compensation strategies. At the item level, linking new Mandarin knowledge with prior knowledge and practising Mandarin pronunciation were among the most frequently reported behaviours. In contrast, initiating conversations, writing in Mandarin, reading for pleasure, and reading without checking unfamiliar words were reported less frequently. Male and female learners showed broadly similar memory-oriented profiles, although some differences appeared in the relative use of cognitive and compensation strategies within each group. Overall, the findings suggest that learners rely strongly on retention, rehearsal, and form-focused practice, while making less frequent use of autonomous, communicative, and risk-taking strategies. The study therefore highlights the value of explicit strategy instruction that builds on learners’ existing strengths while encouraging a broader, more flexible repertoire of speaking, reading, writing, and compensatory strategies in Mandarin learning.

direct language learning strategies; Mandarin as a foreign language; Malay undergraduates; cognitive strategies; compensation strategies

1. Adan, D. A., & Hashim, H. (2021). Language learning strategies used by art school ESL learners. Creative Education, 12(3), 653–665. https://doi.org/10.4236/ce.2021.123045 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Amalia, P. A., & Aridah. (2018). Characteristics of a good language learner in relation to her language learning strategies. Proceedings of the 65th TEFLIN International Conference, 65(1), 17–21. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. Arisman, R. (2020). The relationship between direct language learning strategies and English learning proficiency at senior high school students. J-SHMIC: Journal of English for Academic, 7(2), 41–51. https://doi.org/10.25299/jshmic.2020.vol7(2).5339 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. Chang, S. F., & Huang, S. C. (1999). Language learning motivation and language learning strategies of Taiwanese EFL students (ERIC Document No. ED428561). Educational Resources Information Center. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. Chen, R., & Zhang, L. (2024). On Chinese learning strategies of learners from Central Asian countries: An analysis of gender, age, and learning duration effects. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, 1372005. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1372005 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Cheng, Z., Zheng, M., Yan, Y., & Zhu, C. (2026). L2 Chinese learning motivation and learning strategies: A study about L2 Chinese learners among European universities. Journal of Second Language Studies, 9(1), 101–139. https://doi.org/10.1075/jsls.00043.che [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. Cohen, A. D. (1998). Strategies in learning and using a second language. Longman. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. Eng, S. B., Soo, Y.-P., Lai, Y. Y., Gan, K. C., & Yeap, C. K. (2022). Online direct learning strategies of Mandarin as a foreign language learners during COVID-19 pandemic period in a Malaysian university. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 12(11), 1188–1198. https://doi.org/10.6007/IJARBSS/v12-i11/14840 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. Gan, K. C., Lai, Y. Y., Soo, Y.-P., Eng, S. B., & Yeap, C. K. (2022). Indirect learning strategies of Mandarin as a foreign language learners during online learning in COVID-19 pandemic period. International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development, 11(3), 1509–1519. https://doi.org/10.6007/IJARPED/v11-i3/14992 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. Gavriilidou, Z., & Psaltou-Joycey, A. (2009). Language learning strategies: An overview. Journal of Applied Linguistics, 25, 11–25. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. Griffiths, C. (2015). What have we learnt from ‘good language learners’? ELT Journal, 69(4), 425–433. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccv040 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. Hanafiah, A. D., Kadir, F. A., Kamaruddin, S. M., Hussin, S. N. L., & Hashim, H. (2021). Language learning strategies employed by successful language learners. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 11(6), 1363–1378. https://doi.org/10.6007/IJARBSS/v11-i6/10095 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Hasram, S., & Singh, B. K. A. (2021). Vocabulary learning strategies of good language learners from an international school. Scientific Research Journal, 9(2), 31–37. https://doi.org/10.31364/SCIRJ/v9.i02.2021.P0221843 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. Husain, D. (2011). Fostering autonomous learning inside and outside the classroom in language learning. Badan Penerbit UNM. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. Lee, E. H. (2025). An analysis of Chinese language learning strategies of Korean learners and educational suggestions: Focused on academic achievement and the general characteristics of learners. Journal of Chinese Language and Literature, 98, 343–373. https://doi.org/10.15792/clsyn..98.202504.343 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. Leong, C. M., Salleh, U. K. M., & Chew, F. P. (2024). Effect of language learning strategies on language achievement among undergraduate students of Chinese as foreign language in Malaysia. International Journal of Education, Psychology and Counselling, 9(54), 593–599. https://doi.org/10.35631/IJEPC.954045 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. Lestari, M., & Wahyudin, A. Y. (2020). Language learning strategies of undergraduate EFL students. Journal of English Language Teaching and Learning, 1(1), 25–30. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. Luu, H. V. (2025). A review of research on Chinese learning strategies and suggestions for research on Vietnamese learners. Ho Chi Minh City University of Education Journal of Science, 22(2), 317–328. https://doi.org/10.54607/hcmue.js.22.2.4257(2025) [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. Mulyani, S. (2020). Language learning strategies of successful EFL learners. International Journal in Applied Linguistics of Parahikma, 2(1), 31–39. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. Neo, Y. F., Chan, J. Y., Goh, C. S., & Zhang, A. H. (2024). The influence of metacognitive self-regulation on learning strategies in Mandarin learning. Quantum Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 5(2), 87–103. https://doi.org/10.55197/qjssh.v5i2.347 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. Norman, E. (2020). Why metacognition is not always helpful. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1537. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01537 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

22. O’Malley, J. M., & Chamot, A. U. (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition. Cambridge University Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

23. Othman, N. A., Mohamed, M. N. A., Powzi, N. F. A., & Jamari, S. (2022). A case study of English language learning strategies used by engineering students in Malaysia. Malaysian Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 7(1), 261–269. https://doi.org/10.47405/mjssh.v7i1.1216 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

24. Oxford, R. L. (1989). Use of language learning strategies: A synthesis of studies with implications for strategy training. System, 17(2), 235–247. https://doi.org/10.1016/0346-251X(89)90036-5 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

25. Oxford, R. L. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. Heinle & Heinle. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

26. Pang, Y., Hashim, H., & Mohd Said, N. E. (2024). Learning strategies for Chinese as foreign language learners in college: A qualitative study. Forum for Linguistic Studies, 6(4), 463–473. https://doi.org/10.30564/fls.v6i4.6795 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

27. Rubin, J. (1975). What the ‘good language learner’ can teach us. TESOL Quarterly, 9(1), 41–51. https://doi.org/10.2307/3586011 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

28. Salam, U., Sukarti, & Arifin, Z. (2020). An analysis of learning styles and learning strategies used by a successful language learner. Journal of English Teaching, 6(2), 111–121. https://doi.org/10.33541/jet.v6i2.1734 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

29. Seng, H. Z., Mustafa, N. C., Halim, H. A., Rahmat, N. H., & Amali, N. A. K. (2023). An investigation of direct and indirect learning strategies in learning foreign languages. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 13(3), 322–338. https://doi.org/10.6007/IJARBSS/v13-i3/16492 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

30. Teng, M. F. (2023). Language learning strategies. In Z. E. Wen, R. L. Sparks, A. Biedroń, & M. F. Teng (Eds.), Cognitive individual differences in second language acquisition: Theories, assessment and pedagogy (pp. 147–174). De Gruyter Mouton. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781614514749-008 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

31. Teoh, S. H., Heng, B. C., Neo, Y. F., Chan, J. Y., & Tan, J. Y. Y. (2022). Strategies use in Chinese language learning among non-native Chinese language learners in Malaysia. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 12(11), 2985–3005. https://doi.org/10.6007/IJARBSS/v12-i11/15332 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

32. Ting, H.-L., & Ooi, S. E. (2023). Mandarin pronunciation learning strategies of MFL learners in Malaysia. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 13(2), 1571–1585. https://doi.org/10.6007/IJARBSS/v13-i2/16239 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

33. Ting, H.-L., & Ooi, S. E. (2025). Exploring the use of Mandarin pronunciation learning strategies among MFL learners in Malaysia: Analysis of gender differences. Journal of Academia, 13(1), 82–93. https://doi.org/10.24191/joa.v13i1.5029 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

34. Wenden, A. L. (1987). Conceptual background and utility. In A. L. Wenden & J. Rubin (Eds.), Learner strategies in language learning (pp. 3–13). Prentice-Hall. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

35. Widharyanto, B., & Binawa, H. (2020). Learning style and language learning strategies of students from various ethnics in Indonesia. Jurnal Cakrawala Pendidikan, 39(2), 480-492. https://doi.org/10.21831/cp.v39i2.28173 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

36. Wong, L. L. C., & Nunan, D. (2011). The learning styles and strategies of effective language learners. System, 39(2), 144–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2011.05.004 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

• The Impact of Ownership Structure on Dividend Payout Policy of Listed Plantation Companies in Sri Lanka
• Urban Sustainability in North-East India: A Study through the lens of NER-SDG index
• Performance Assessment of Predictive Forecasting Techniques for Enhancing Hospital Supply Chain Efficiency in Healthcare Logistics
• The Fractured Self in Julian Barnes' Postmodern Fiction: Identity Crisis and Deflation in Metroland and the Sense of an Ending
• Impact of Flood on the Employment, Labour Productivity and Migration of Agricultural Labour in North Bihar