From Policy to Practice: Evaluating Malaysia’s Energy-Laws Framework for Supporting Organic Farming and Water Resource Sustainability

Malaysia faces increasing water-related challenges associated with climate variability, pollution, and inefficient resource management, with agriculture being a major user of freshwater resources. Globally, agriculture accounts for more than 70% of freshwater withdrawals, highlighting the importance of sustainable agricultural practices in addressing water stress. Organic farming represents one potential approach to sustainable agricultural production through practices that promote soil health, water conservation, and reduced reliance on synthetic fertilisers and pesticides. However, the adoption of sustainable farming practices also requires reliable and affordable energy, particularly in rural areas where electricity is needed for irrigation, storage, and other agricultural activities. This study examines whether Malaysia’s existing energy-law and policy framework adequately supports the integration of decentralised renewable energy into organic farming as part of a broader response to water-related challenges. A qualitative doctrinal legal research method is adopted to analyse relevant Malaysian legislation, national policies, and academic literature concerning renewable energy, sustainable agriculture, water management, and energy justice. The findings reveal a gap between Malaysia’s sustainability policy objectives and their implementation at the farm level. Although existing frameworks promote renewable energy and sustainable agricultural development, they provide limited legal and institutional support for decentralised renewable-energy applications in small-scale and rural farming, including solar-powered irrigation and on-farm renewable-energy systems. The analysis further identifies limitations in financial incentives, technical assistance, and accessible implementation mechanisms for rural farmers. From an energy-justice perspective, these gaps raise concerns regarding equitable access to renewable energy and the participation of rural agricultural communities in the energy transition. The study therefore proposes a more integrated legal and policy framework that connects energy, agriculture, and water governance, supported by targeted financial incentives, simplified regulatory mechanisms, technical assistance, and decentralised renewable-energy initiatives to strengthen the sustainability and resilience of organic farming in Malaysia.

Water crisis, energy law, organic farming, sustainable agriculture, energy justice

1. Abd Aziz, A. J., Baharuddin, N. A., Md. Khalid, R., & Kamarudin, S. K. (2024). Review of the policies and development programs for renewable energy in Malaysia: Progress, achievements and challenges. Energy Exploration & Exploitation, 42(4), 1472–1501. https://doi.org/10.1177/01445987241227509 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Achkar, R. (2024). The intersection of climate justice and energy equity. LinkedIn. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/intersection-climate-justice-energy-equity-dr-roger-achkar-wl5vf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. Agbaitoro, G., Hulme, K., & Wewerinke-Singh, M. (2024). Energy justice discourse: Global South perspectives. Journal of Energy & Natural Resources Law, 42, 251–254. https://doi.org/10.1080/02646811.2024.2368985 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. Ahmad, E. Z., Halyani, M. Y., Norain, I., Windiarti, H., Firdaus, H. M. S., Miswan, N., & Zulfattah, Z. M. (2015). Stand-alone solar photovoltaic for rural electrification: A case study in Kampung SG Lah, Tapah, Malaysia. Jurnal Teknologi, 76(4), 65–69. https://doi.org/10.11113/jt.v76.5487 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. Arfa, A. (2025, April 7). Who’s blocking the sun? Barriers to solar power in Malaysia. Taylor’s University. https://university.taylors.edu.my/en/student-life/news/2025/who-blocking-the-sun-barriers-to-solar-power-in-malaysia.html [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Asri, E. A., Khalit, S. I., Hampden, A. Z., Mustafa, M. A., & Mohd, N. (2020). Prototype design of rainwater harvesting and solar irrigation system for small-scale farm. Journal of Agrobiotechnology, 11(1S), 92–102. https://doi.org/10.37231/jab.2020.11.1S.238 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. Barry, B. (1999). Sustainability and intergenerational justice. In A. Dobson (Ed.), Fairness and futurity: Essays on environmental sustainability and social justice (pp. 93–117). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/0198294891.003.0005 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. Bartlett, E., & Sayol, M. (2024, December 23). Key functions of specialization in energy law. Esade. https://www.esade.edu/beyond/en/key-functions-of-specialization-in-energy-law/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. Çerçioğlu, M., Udawatta, R. P., & Anderson, S. H. (2025). Use of cover crops for sustainable management of soil condition and health: A review. Soil Security, 18, Article 100177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soisec.2025.100177 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. Che Omar, S., Abu Rahim, M. A. R., Nik Sharifulden, N. S. A., & Teoh, A. N. (2024). Understanding the landscape of agrifood smallholders in Malaysia: Climate risks, sustainable standards, and gender gap. Khazanah Research Institute. https://www.krinstitute.org/publications/understanding-the-landscape-of-agrifood-smallholders-in-malaysia-climate-risks-sustainable-standards-and-gender-gap [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. Codogni, T. (2026). Sustainable energy consumption and prosumer models in Polish law. Sustainability, 18(16), 8038 https://doi.org/10.3390/su18168038. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. Dunlap, A., & Sovacool, B. K. (2020). The dark side of’renewable’energy: Green extractivism, environmental injustice and a political ecology of decarbonization. Energy Research & Social Science, 68, 101524. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2020.101524 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Dworkin, R. (1977). Taking Rights Seriously. Harvard University Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. Economic Planning Unit. (2022). Water sector transformation 2040 (WST2040): Integrated Water Sector Data Centre (IWSDC) (Vol. III). Academy of Sciences Malaysia. https://www.ekonomi.gov.my/sites/default/files/2022-10/6.%20WST2040%20VOLUME%20III_IWSDC.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. Encyclopaedia Britannica. (n.d.). Organic farming. https://www.britannica.com/topic/organic-farming [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. Endo, A., Tsurita, I., Burnett, K., & Orencio, P. M. (2017). A review of the current state of research on the water, energy, and food nexus. Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies, 11, 20–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2015.11.010 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. European Commission. (2020, May 20). A farm to fork strategy for a fair, healthy and environmentally-friendly food system (COM(2020) 381 final). https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:52020DC0381 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. European Parliament & Council of the European Union. (2013). Regulation (EU) No 1305/2013 on support for rural development by the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (EAFRD). Official Journal of the European Union, L 347, 487–548. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32013R1305 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. European Parliament and Council of the European Union. (2018). Directive (EU) 2018/2001 of 11 December 2018 on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources (recast). Official Journal of the European Union, L 328, 82–209. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32018L2001 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. Falchetta, G., Semeria, F., Tuninetti, M., Giordano, V., Pachauri, S., & Byers, E. (2023). Solar irrigation in sub-Saharan Africa: Economic feasibility and development potential. Environmental Research Letters, 18(9), Article 094044. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/acefe5 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. Feenstra, M., & Özerol, G. (2021). Energy justice: A Framework For The Global Energy Transition. Sustainability, 13(18), 10142. https://doi.org/10.3390/su131810142 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

22. Finley-Brook, M., & Holloman, E. L. (2016). Empowering Energy Justice. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 13(9), 926. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13090926 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

23. Hahn, C., Lindkvist, E., Magnusson, D., & Johansson, M. (2025). The Role Of Agriculture In A Sustainable Energy System – The farmers’ perspective. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Article 115437, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2025.115437 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

24. Hasim, K., Almsafir, M. K., & Kumaran, V. (2014). An economic evaluation of grid-connected photovoltaic generation system for residential house in Malaysia. Journal of Advanced Science and Engineering Research, 4(1), 47–60. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

25. Heffron, R. J. (2022). Applying energy justice into the energy transition. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 156, Article 111936. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

26. Heffron, R. J., & McCauley, D. (2018). What is the “just transition”? Geoforum, 88, 74–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2017.11.016 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

27. Ibrahim, I. Z., Abdul Wahab, M. A. M., & Suhaimee, S. (2016, January 30). Organic agriculture in Malaysia. FFTC Agricultural Policy Platform. https://ap.fftc.org.tw/article/1010 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

28. Joint Committee on Climate Change. (2023, October 23). JC3 announces initiatives to support an inclusive transition to a greener economy. https://www.jc3malaysia.com/news/jc3-announces-initiatives-to-support-an-inclusive-transition-to-a-greener-economy [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

29. Kardooni, R., Yusoff, S. B., & Kari, F. B. (2015). Barriers to renewable energy development: Five fuel policy in Malaysia. Energy & Environment, 26(8), 1353–1361. https://doi.org/10.1260/0958-305X.26.8.1353 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

30. Kong, H. W. (2002). Policy Analysis Of Malaysia’s Bioenergy Programme: A Study On Social And Economic Impact. FAO. https://www.fao.org/4/XII/0856-A1.htm [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

31. Malaysian Green Technology and Climate Change Corporation. (2023). Green practices guideline for livestock sector. https://www.mgtc.gov.my/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/2-MGTC-GG_2023_Livestock_030823_SINGLE_Rv1.1.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

32. Malaysian Investment Development Authority. (2023, December 27). Home rooftop solar energy system – a reality check. https://www.mida.gov.my/mida-news/home-rooftop-solar-energy-system-a-reality-check/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

33. Malik, V., Tomar, B., Kumar, M., & Kumari, M. (2023). Exploring the benefits of organic farming for health and the environment. Agri India Today, 5(10), 362–365. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/374587072 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

34. Marciniuk-Kluska, A., & Kluska, M. (2023). Forecasting energy recovery from municipal waste in a closed-loop economy. Energies, 16(6), 2732. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16062732 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

35. McCauley, D., & Heffron, R. (2018). Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice. Energy Policy, 119, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.014 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

36. Ministry of Agriculture and Food Industries Malaysia. (2021). National agrofood policy 2021–2030 (NAP 2.0). https://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/mal211654.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

37. Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Water Malaysia. (2017). Green technology master plan Malaysia 2017–2030. https://www.pmo.gov.my/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Green-Technology-Master-Plan-Malaysia-2017-2030.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

38. Ministry of Finance Malaysia. (2024). Statistical tables: Economic outlook 2025. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

39. https://belanjawan.mof.gov.my/pdf/belanjawan2025/economy/Statistical-Tables.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

40. Muhammad-Sukki, F., Abu-Bakar, S. H., Munir, A. B., Mohd Yasin, S. H., Ramirez-Iniguez, R., McMeekin, S. G., Stewart, B. G., & Abdul Rahim, R. (2014). Progress of feed-in tariff in Malaysia: A year after. Energy Policy, 67, 618–625. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2013.12.044 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

41. Nazarov, D., Sulimin, V., Shvedov, V., & Larionova, N. (2024). Biomass energy use in greenhouse agriculture in the Netherlands. E3S Web of Conferences, 541, Article 01002. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202454101002 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

42. Omar, Z., Saili, A. R., Abdul Fatah, F., Abd Aziz, A. S., Yusup, Z., Rola-rubzen, F., & Bujang, A. S. (2024). Exploring the challenges of adopting smart farming in the agriculture sector among smallholders in Malaysia. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 14(6), 1654–1663. https://doi.org/10.6007/IJARBSS/v14-i6/21810 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

43. Othman, N. F., Mat Su, A. S., & Ya'Acob, M. E. (2018). Promising potentials of agrivoltaic systems for the development of Malaysia green economy. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 146(1), Article 012002. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/146/1/012002 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

44. Othman, N. F., Ya’acob, M. E., Lu, L., Jamaluddin, A. H., Mat Su, A. S., Hizam, H., Shamsudin, R., & Jaafar, J. N. (2023). Advancement in Agriculture Approaches with Agrivoltaics Natural Cooling in Large Scale Solar PV Farms. Agriculture, 13(4), 854. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13040854 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

45. Rahman, H. A. (2021). Water Issues In Malaysia. International Journal Of Academic Research In Business And Social Sciences, 11(8), 860–875. https://doi.org/10.6007/IJARBSS/v11‑i8/10783 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

46. Ramli, F. (2024, November 19). Insights into Sabah’s rural and interior poverty. Bernama. https://www.bernama.com/en/news.php?id=2364927 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

47. Rasul, G., & Neupane, N. (2021). Improving policy coordination across the water, energy, and food sectors in South Asia: A framework. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 5, Article 602475. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2021.602475 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

48. Rasul, G., & Sharma, B. (2016). The nexus approach to water–energy–food security: An option for adaptation to climate change. Climate Policy, 16(6), 682–702. https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2015.1029865 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

49. Ritchie, H., & Roser, M. (2024). Water Use And Agriculture. Our World In Data. https://ourworldindata.org/water-use-agriculture [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

50. Rowlands, I. H., Ahmad, M. S., & Herdem, M. (2025, March 21). Exploring hydrogen for energy development in remote communities: Comparing Canadian and Malaysian prospects. pv magazine. https://www.pv-magazine.com/2025/03/21/exploring-hydrogen-for-energy-development-in-remote-communities-comparing-canadian-and-malaysian-prospects/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

51. Sabah Renewable Energy Rural Electrification Consortium. (2023). Sabah Renewable Energy Rural Electrification Roadmap. https://www.sabahre2roadmap.org/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

52. Sarawak Energy Berhad. (n.d.). Rural Electrification. https://www.sarawakenergy.com/what-we-do/rural-electrification [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

53. Schnetzer, J., & Pluschke, L. (2017). Solar-powered irrigation systems: A clean-energy, low-emission option for irrigation development and modernization. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. https://www.fao.org/3/bt437e/bt437e.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

54. Shamsuddin, A. H. (2012). Development of renewable energy in Malaysia-strategic initiatives for carbon reduction in the power generation sector. Procedia Engineering, 49, 384–391. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2012.10.150 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

55. Sheehan, K. (2019, December 23). Section 1—Defining energy justice: Connections to environmental justice, climate justice, and the just transition. Initiative for Energy Justice. https://iejusa.org/section-1-defining-energy-justice/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

56. Sovacool, B. K., Ali, S. H., Bazilian, M., Radley, B., Nemery, B., Okatz, J., & Mulvaney, D. (2020). Sustainable minerals and metals for a low-carbon future. Science, 367(6473), 30–33. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaz6003 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

57. Streimikiene, D., & Siksnelyte-Butkiene, I. (2021). Barriers and drivers of renewable energy penetration in rural areas. Energies, 14(20), 6452. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14206452 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

58. Sustainable Energy Development Authority Malaysia. (n.d.). Net energy metering (NEM) 3.0. https://www.seda.gov.my/reportal/nem/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

59. Taguta, C., Dirwai, T. L., Senzanje, A., Sikka, A., & Mabhaudhi, T. (2022). Sustainable Irrigation Technologies: A Water‑energy‑food (Wef) Nexus Perspective Towards Achieving More Crop Per Drop Per Joule Per Hectare. Environmental Research Letters, 17(7), 073003. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ac7b39 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

60. Tan, H. P., Yap, E. H., & Abakr, Y. A. (2020). A system dynamics analysis of the water–energy nexus in Malaysia. Systems, 8(2), Article 19. https://doi.org/10.3390/systems8020019 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

61. United Nations General Assembly. (2015). Transforming our world: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (A/RES/70/1). https://undocs.org/A/RES/70/1 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

62. Uyir Organic. (2024). The Environmental Impact Of Organic Farming Vs. Conventional Farming. https://uyirorganic.farm/the-environmental-impact-of-organic-farming-vs-conventional-farming/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

63. Weiss, E. B. (1989). In fairness to future generations: International law, common patrimony, and intergenerational equity. Transnational Publishers. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

• Conflict of Law in the Safeguarding of Malaysian Intangible Cultural Heritage: A Way Forward
• Alternative Dispute Resolution in India: A Brief Overview Justice Delayed is Justice Denied. - William E. Gladstone
• The Role of Museums in Safeguarding Cultural Heritage Rights: Balancing Access and Repatriation
• An Evaluation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' Significance and Application in Nigeria
• The Role of International Law in Shaping National Immigration Policies.