Review of Challenges Encountered by Female-Headed Households: The Case of Sub-Saharan Africa

This study explores the multifaceted challenges faced by female-headed households in sub-Saharan Africa and examines the strategies they employ to cope with these difficulties. In many African societies, household leadership has traditionally been assigned to men due to entrenched cultural norms and gender roles. However, the number of female-headed households has been steadily increasing as a result of widowhood, divorce, marital separation, conflict, and male labor migration. Despite their growing prevalence, these households often remain socially and economically marginalized. Female-headed households frequently face significant challenges, including persistent poverty, limited access to stable employment, restricted land and property rights, and inadequate institutional and social support. In addition to economic constraints, female household heads often shoulder disproportionate parenting and caregiving responsibilities, which can intensify psychological stress and reduce opportunities for income generation. These vulnerabilities are further exacerbated during broader crises such as economic downturns, health emergencies, and climate-related shocks. Using a qualitative research approach and document analysis, the study reviews secondary data drawn from 13 sub-Saharan African countries. The findings reveal that female-headed households experience what can be described as triple adversity: economic hardship, heavy parenting burdens, and heightened vulnerability to structural and external crises. Guided by a social constructivist paradigm, the study highlights how these challenges vary across contexts and how women adapt through diverse coping mechanisms shaped by social, cultural, and institutional environments. Overall, the research contributes to a deeper understanding of the systemic and structural factors affecting female-headed households and underscores the urgent need for targeted, gender-sensitive policies and support systems to enhance their resilience and well-being

Female headed household, household, challenges

1. Akadiri, S. et al. (2018). Are female-headed households less food secure? evidence from Nigeria and Ethiopia. In Allied Social Science Association Annual Conference. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Amuyunzu-N, M., & Ezeh, A. C. (2005). A qualitative assessment of support mechanisms in informal settlements of Nairobi, Kenya. Journal of Poverty, 9(3), 89-107. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. AU. (1995). Protocol to the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa. Maputo: African Union. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. Brickell, K., & Chant, S. (2010). ‘The unbearable heaviness of being’ reflections on female altruism in Cambodia, Philippines, The Gambia, and Costa Rica. Progress in Development Studies, 10(2), 145-159. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. Brown, C., & Van de Walle, D. (2021). Headship and poverty in Africa. The World Bank Economic Review, 35(4), 1038-1056. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Bryceson, D. F. (2002). Multiplex livelihoods in rural Africa: recasting the terms and conditions of gainful employment. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 40(1), 1-28. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. Budlender, D. (2003). The debate about household headship. Social Dynamics, 29(2), 48-72. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. Carr, E. R., & Thompson, M. C. (2014). Gender and climate change adaptation in agrarian settings: Current thinking, new directions, and research frontiers. Geography Compass, 8(3), 182 197. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. Chant, S. (1997). Women-headed households: Diversity and dynamics in the developing world. Springer. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. Chant, S. (2008). The ‘feminization of poverty ‘and the ‘feminizations’ anti-poverty programs: Room for revision. The Journal of Development Studies, 44(2), 165-197. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. Cheru, T. (2020). Livelihood Strategies of Informal Women Vendors in Akaki Kaliti Sub- city, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (Doctoral dissertation, St. Mary's University). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. Chipimo, P. J., & Fylkesnes, K. (2009). Mental distress in the general population in Zambia: impact of HIV and social factors. BMC Public Health, 9(1), 1-11. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Ciampi, L. (2021). Understanding circulations of dominant gender discourse in development interventions: the case study of Zimbabwean agricultural extension services(Doctoral dissertation, University of Reading). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. Derrick-Mills, T. M. (2015). Exploring the dimensions of nonprofit competition through its supplementary, complementary, and adversarial relationships with government. In Nonprofit Policy Forum Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 243-262). De Gruyter. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. Dube, M. (2008). Widowhood and Property Inheritance in Zimbabwe: Experiences of Widows in Sikalenge Ward, Binga District (Doctoral dissertation, University of Fort Hare). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. FAO. (2011). The state of food and agriculture. Women in Agriculture: Closing the Gap for Development. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. Farash, H. M. A. (2016). Socio-Demographic and Economic Characteristics and Problems of Jordanian Female-Headed Households. In Women, Work and Welfare in the Middle East and North Africa: The Role of Socio-demographics, Entrepreneurship and Public Policies (pp. 135-156). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. Foster, G. (2005). Under the radar–Community safety nets for children affected by HIV/AIDS in poor households in sub-Saharan Africa. New York: UNRISD. Available at: www//aidsalliance. 3cdn. net/452cceba0c5b20b0e9_kam6ba902. doc. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. Freedman, J. (2001). Concepts in the social sciences: Feminism. Open University Press, Philadelphia. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. Fuller, R., & Lain, J. (2020). Are female-headed households less resilient? Evidence from Oxfam’s impact evaluations. Climate and Development, 12(5), 420-435. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. Gillespie, S. H. (2003). Journeys of Faith. Church-based Responses to HIV and AIDS in Three [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

22. Southern African Countries. Strategies for Hope, No. 16. Gideon Byamugisha, Lucy Y. Steinitz, Glen Williams & Phumzile Zondi. St Albans: TALC, 2002. vi+ 108pp. Price£ 4.50. ISBN 0-9543060-0-7. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

23. Goldsmith, D. J., & Albrecht, T. L. (2011). Social support, social networks, and health. The Routledge handbook of health communication, 361-374. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

24. Hamdok, A. A. (1999). A poverty assessment exercise in Zimbabwe. African Development Review, 11(2), 290-306. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

25. Horrell, S., & Krishnan, P. (2007). Poverty and productivity in female-headed households in Zimbabwe. The journal of development studies, 43(8), 1351-1380. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

26. International Labour Organization. (2005). A Global Alliance Against Forced Labour: Global Report Under the Follow-up to the ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work, 2005 (Vol. 93).International Labour Organization. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

27. Kang ethe, S. M. (2011). Gender discrepancies in the HIV/AIDS community home-based care programme in Kanye, Botswana. South African Family Practice, 53(5), 467- 473. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

28. Kanyamurwa, J. M., & Ampek, G. T. (2007). Gender differentiation in community responses to AIDS in rural Uganda. AIDS care, 19(sup1), 64-72. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

29. Karamagi, C. et al. (2006). Intimate partner violence against women in eastern Uganda: implications for HIV prevention. BMC public health, 6(1), 1-12. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

30. Kennedy, E., & Haddad, L. (1994). Are pre‐ schoolers from female‐headed households less malnourished? A comparative analysis of results from Ghana and Kenya. The journal of development studies, 30(3), 680-695. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

31. Khosravi, Z. (2001). The study of the physical sociological dangers of the female headed households. scientific, Humanities research quarterly, (39). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

32. Kotwal, N., & Prabhakar, B. (2009). Problems faced by single mothers. Journal of Social Sciences, 21(3), 197-204. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

33. Mashiri, M., et al. (2009). Gender dimensions of agricultural & rural employment–differentiated pathways out of poverty: Experiences from South Africa. CSIR Built Environment: South Africa. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

34. Miller, G. (2003). Incorporating spirituality in counseling and psychotherapy: Theory and technique. John Wiley & Sons. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

35. Mkhize, G. N. (2017). An exploration of the psychosocial experiences of women who head households (Doctoral dissertation). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

36. Mulugeta, M. S. (2009). Determinants of livelihood strategies of urban women: The case of female household heads in Wolenchiti Town, Ethiopia. Research and Perspectives on Development Practice, 6. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

37. Musekiwa, P. (2013). Livelihood Strategies of Female Headed Households in Zimbabwe: The Case of Magaso Village, Mutoko District in Zimbabwe (Doctoral dissertation, University of Fort Hare). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

38. Mutanda, D., & Rukondo, H. (2015). An analysis of the relevance of a grand strategy in order to reduce gender-based violence in Zimbabwe. International Journal of Gender Studies in Developing Societies, 1(1), 90-105. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

39. Mutangadura, G. (2010). Achieving gender equality, women’s empowerment and ending violence against women in Africa: A review of the role of family policy and social protection. Draft Paper Accessed February 24/2023. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

40. Nalule, W. (2015). Livelihoods of female-headed households in Namuwongo slum, Kampala Uganda (Master's thesis, The University of Bergen). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

41. Ntozi, J. P., & Zirimenya, S. (1999). Changes in household composition and family structure during the AIDS epidemic in Uganda. The continuing African HIV/AIDS epidemic, 193Á209. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

42. Pascoe, S. et al. (2015). Poverty, food insufficiency and HIV infection and sexual behavior among young rural Zimbabwean women. PloS one, 10(1), e0115290. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

43. Patton, M. Q. (2014). Qualitative research & evaluation methods: Integrating theory and practice. Sage publications. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

44. Pearlin, L. I., & Schooler, C. (1978). The structure of coping. Journal of health and social behavior, 2-21. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

45. Posel, D. R. (2001). Who are the heads of household, what do they do, and is the concept of headship useful? An analysis of headship in South Africa. Development Southern Africa, 18(5), 651670. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

46. Retta, T. (2016). The problems of female-headed households of gulele sub city in district 01 of Addis Ababa city administration (Doctoral dissertation, Indira Gandhi National Open University /IGNOU/ School of Social Work) [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

47. Rogan, M. (2016). Qualitative perceptions of the meaning of “headship” and female-headed households in post-apartheid South Africa. Social Dynamics, 42(1), 175-195. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

48. Roman, C. G. (2004). Measuring local institutions and organizations: The role of community institutional capacity in social capital. Report to the Aspen Institute Roundtable on Comprehensive Community Initiatives [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

49. Saad, G., et al. (2022). Paving the way to understanding female-headed households: Variation in household composition across103 low-and middle-income countries. Journal of Global Health, 12. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

50. Saleebey, D. (2012). The strengths perspective. The Profession of Social Work: Guided by History, Led by Evidence, 163. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

51. Sanni, L. (2006). Comparative study of female-headed households in the city of Ibadan. JENDA: A journal of culture and African women studies, (8). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

52. Schmitt, M et al. (2002). Perceiving discrimination against one’s gender group has different implications for well-being in women and men. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(2), 197-210. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

53. Sidloyi, S. S., & Bomela, N. J. (2016). Survival strategies of elderly women in Ngangelizwe Township, Mthatha, South Africa: Livelihoods, social networks, and income. Archives of gerontology and geriatrics, 62, 43-52. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

54. UN. (2009). OECD Data on Gender Institutions. Development Database, 12. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

55. UNDP. (1995). Trends in the Status of Women: An Overview of Nationall Reports for the World Conference on Women. Regional Bureau for Africa. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

56. UNICEF. (2011). UNICEF annual report 2010. UNICEF. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

57. United Nations Development Programme. (2008). Comprehensive economic recovery in Zimbabwe: A discussion document. UNDP Zimbabwe. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

58. van Schalkwyk, I. (2021). Strengthening female-headed households: Exploring the challenges and strengths of mothers with substance-problems living in a high- risk community. Journal of Family Studies, 27(2), 280-302. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

59. Villarreal, A., & Shin, H. (2008). Unraveling the economic paradox of female-headed households in Mexico: the role of family networks. The Sociological Quarterly, 49(3), 565-595. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

60. Wondimu& Dejene. (2022). What do female-headed households’ livelihood strategies in Jimma city, Southwest Ethiopia look like from the perspective of the sustainable livelihood approach? Cogent Social Sciences, 8(1), 2075133. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

61. World Bank. (2011). World development report 2012: Gender equality and development. The World Bank. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

62. World Bank. (2021). World bank group report 2022: Female headed households (% of households with a female head) - Sub-Saharan Africa. The WB. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

63. Zakari, S., & Song, B. (2014). Factors influencing household food security in West Africa: The case of Southern Niger. Sustainability, 6(3), 1191-1202. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

64. Zarhani, S. H. (2011). Empowerment of Female headed households Case Study:" Sedighin” charity institution in Iran. Social Sciences. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

65. Zhang, M., & Gordon, D. (2020). Understanding Gender Inequality in Poverty and Social Exclusion through a Psychological Lens: Scarcities, Stereotypes and Suggestions. In The Cambridge Handbook of the International Psychology of Women (pp. 390- 401). Cambridge University Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

• The Impact of Ownership Structure on Dividend Payout Policy of Listed Plantation Companies in Sri Lanka
• Urban Sustainability in North-East India: A Study through the lens of NER-SDG index
• Performance Assessment of Predictive Forecasting Techniques for Enhancing Hospital Supply Chain Efficiency in Healthcare Logistics
• The Fractured Self in Julian Barnes' Postmodern Fiction: Identity Crisis and Deflation in Metroland and the Sense of an Ending
• Impact of Flood on the Employment, Labour Productivity and Migration of Agricultural Labour in North Bihar