An Investigation of Teachers’ Use of Language Immersion for Instruction in the English Language in Sub-County Secondary Schools in Bungoma County, Kenya

This paper reports on a study that was undertaken in 2025 that sought to establish the teachers’ use of the Language Immersion model for instruction in English language against translanguaging for teaching English as a second language. The study was undertaken in Sub-County Secondary Schools in Bungoma County in Kenya and was guided by Swain Merrill’s Output Hypothesis (1985) theory. The study employed the quantitative research design and approach using quantitative techniques. The study population comprised 16 teachers of English and 96 students taking English subject in purposively selected sub-county secondary schools. Questionnaires were used in quantitative data collection. The findings revealed that less than 25% of the teachers of English were using Language Immersion as a teaching strategy in English instruction as 37.5% teachers frequently used other strategies. The research also established that only 12.5% of the teachers felt that Language Immersion enhances Second Language achievement to a considerable extent. Only 18.75% of students indicated that their teachers do not use another language, meaning these are the teachers that fully embrace language immersion in the instruction of English. The study concluded that the teachers of the English language in sub-county secondary schools in Bungoma County in Kenya do not significantly use Language Immersion as a teaching strategy despite the current policy guidelines that demand exclusive use of English as the medium of instruction apart from when teaching Kiswahili language. This study therefore recommends that the Ministry of Education in Kenya should consider revising the policy on the medium of instruction as a paradigm shift in the teaching of language to include other novel strategies for enhanced learner achievement in English as a second language.

Language Immersion, Pedagogy, Multilingual, English Language, Instruction

1. Baker C. (2001). Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism (3rd Ed). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Google Scholar. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Baydak, A. V., Scharioth, C., & Il’vashenko, I. A. (2015) “Interaction of Language and Culture in the Process of International Education.” Procedia, Social and Behavioral Sciences, vol. 215, 2015, pp. 14-18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.11.567 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. Bostwick, M. (2001). English Language Immersion in a Japanese School. In D. Christian & F.Genesee (eds.), Bilingual Education. Alexandra: TESOL. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. Brock-Utne, B. (2001). Education for all — in whose language? Oxford Review of Education, 27, 115–134. DOI:10.1080/3054980020030637. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. Burnett, D. (2012). Inscribing knowledge writing research in social sciences work. In W Green & B. L.eds, The Columbi Guide to social work writing. NYColumbia university press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Cenoz, J., and D. Gorter. (2017). Minority languages and sustainable translanguaging: Threat or opportunity? Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 38 (10). Available:<https://researchgate.net/publication/313594739...> [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. Cenoz, J., & Gorter, D. (2020). Teaching English through pedagogical translanguaging. World Englishes, 39(2), 300–311. https://doi.org/10.1111/weng.12462. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. Coates, H. (2005). The value of student engagement for higher education quality assurance. Quality in Higher Education, 11(1), 25–36. Available: https://doi.org/10.108013538320500074915. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. Cohen, L., L. Manion., and K. Morrison (2007). Research Methods in Education (6th ed). Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. Conteh, J. (2018). Translanguaging as a pedagogy- a critical view. The Routeledge Handbook of Language and Superdiversity. Routeledge. London. <Routeledge.com>. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. Creswell, J. (2003). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Method Approaches (2nd ed). Thousand oaks, CA: Sage publishers. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. Creswell, J.W and Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods Approaches. Thousand Oaks, California 91320. SAGE Publications Ltd. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Creswell W. & Creswell J. (2023). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches (6th ed). Los Angeles. Sage. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. Cronquist, Kathryn, & Ariel Fiszbein. “El aprendizaje del inglés en América Latina.” Fundación Lúminis, Biblioteca Virtual, 2017. https://www.fundacionluminis.org.ar/editorial/el-dialogo-liderazgo-para-las americas [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. Cummins, J. (2009). ‘Bilingual and Immersion programs.’ In M. H. Long & C. J. Doughty(Eds.), The handbook of language teaching. Singapore: Blackwell Publishing, 161-181. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. Derakhshan, A., & Karimi, E. (2015). The Interference of First Language and Second Language Acquisition and Practice https://doi.org/10.17507/tpls.0510.19. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. Domma, A. and Zafiri M. (2018). A Case Study of Two Groups of A1 Level Students in English. Education and Linguistics Research ISSN 2377-1356 2018, Vol. 4, No. 2. http://doi.org/10.5296/elr.v4i2.13640. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. Freeman, S. V. (2016). Counter-narratives of African American academic persistence: Identity maps and funds of knowledge [Doctoral dissertation, Arizona State University]. ASU Electronic Theses and Dissertations. http://hdl.handle.net/2286/R.I.38453 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. Galante, A. (2020). Translanguaging for Vocabulary Development: A Mixed Methods Study with International Students in a Canadian English for Academic Purposes Program. In: Z. Tian, L. Aghai, P. Sayer and J.L. Schissel, eds., Envisioning TESOL through a Translanguaging Lens. New York: Springer. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. García, O. (2009). Bilingual education in the 21st century: A global perspective. Malden/ Oxford: John Wiley & Sons. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. García O. and W. Li. (2014). Translanguaging: Language, Bilingualism and Education. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Google Scholar [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

22. García-Mateus S, & Palmer, D. (2017) Translanguaging pedagogies for positive identities in two-way dual language bilingual education. Journal of Language, Identity and Education. Available:<https://doi.org/10.1080/15348458.2017.1329016>. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

23. Genesee, Fred, William E Lambert y Naomi E. Holobow (1986). “La adquisición de una segunda lengua mediante inmersión: el enfoque Canadiense.” Infancia y Aprendizaje, Vol. 33, 1986, pp. 27-36. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

24. Herdina, P., & Jessner, U. (2002). A dynamic model of multilingualism: Perspectives of change in psycholinguistics (Vol. 121). Multilingual Matters. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

25. Heugh, K. (2007). Language and Literacy Issues in South Africa. In Rassool, N (ed). Global Issues in Language, Education and Development. Linguistic Diversity and Language Rights [Series], 187-217. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

26. NCL (2008). The Constitution of Kenya. National Council for Law Reporting with the Authority of the Attorney General. Nairobi. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

27. Kang, S. (2013). The Effect of Language Immersion on Second Language Intonation. Journal of Pan-Pacific Association of Applied Linguistics, 17(1), 1-27. Available:<https://eric.ed.gov/?idEJ1026108> [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

28. KIE, (2002) Secondary Education Syllabus: KIE. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

29. Kiramba, L. (2014). Classroom discourse in bilingual and multilingual Kenyan primary schools. In E. C. Zsiga, B. O. Tlale, & R. Kramer (Eds.), Languages in Africa: Multilingualism, language policy, and education (pp. 17–33). Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

30. Kiramba, L. K. (2016). Translanguaging in the Writing of Emergent Multilingual. Faculty Publications: Department of Teaching, Learning and Teacher Education. 248. (http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/teachlearnfacpub/248). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

31. Kombo, D.K & Tromp, L.A., (2006) Proposal and Thesis writing: an introduction. Nairobi, Pauline’s Publication of Africa [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

32. Kuchah, K., & Smith, R. (2011). Pedagogy of autonomy for difficult circumstances: From practice to principles. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 5(2), 119–140. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

33. Lau, S. H., Mohd Muhridza, N. H., & Kahar, R. (2016). Spoken English Strategies Employed by ESL Speakers at Tertiary Level. In N.Z. Abdul Razak (Ed.). pp. 17-36. Research Insight on Second Language Learning and Teaching in Malaysia. Malaysia: Penerbit UTM. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

34. Lewis, G., Jones, B., & Baker, C. (2012). Translanguaging: Origins and development from school to street and beyond. Educational Research and Evaluation, 18(7), 641–654. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

35. Li, W. (2018). Translanguaging as a practical theory of language. Applied Linguistics 39(1): 9– 30. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

36. Lin, A. (2019). Theories of translanguaging and trans-semiotizing: implications for contentbased education classrooms. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 22(1): 5–16.https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050/2018.1515175 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

37. MacSwan, J. (2017). A multilingual perspective on translanguaging. American Educational Research Journal, 54(1), 167-201. <https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jeff-Macswan-2/publication/316629496...> [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

38. Makalela, L. (2015). Moving out of linguistic boxes: The effects of translanguaging strategies for multilingual classrooms. Language and Education, 29(3), 200–217. doi:10.1080/09500782.2014.994 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

39. Makoni, S. B., & Pennycook, A. (2006). Disinventing and reconstituting languages. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

40. Nascimento, F. C. (2017). Benefits of Dual Language Immersion on the Academic Achievement of English Language Learners. International Journal of Literacies, 24(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1590/1984-6398291914813. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

41. NCL (2008). The Constitution of Kenya. National Council for Law Reporting with the Authority of the Attorney General. Nairobi [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

42. Norman N. (2012). An Examination of the Benefits and Drawbacks of Translanguaging in CLIL Science Classrooms: An Examination into Spanish Primary Contexts (pdf). https://www.academia.edu/4048451 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

43. Ogbu, J. U., & Simons, H. D. (1998). Voluntary and involuntary minorities: A culturalecological theory of school performance with some implications for education. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 29(2), 155–188. https://faculty.washington.edu/rsoder/EDUC310... [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

44. Otheguy, R., García, O., & Reid, W. (2015). Clarifying translanguaging and deconstructing named languages: A perspective from linguistics. Applied Linguistics Review, 6, 281- 307. doi:http://dx. doi.org/10.1515/applirev-2015-0014 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

45. Otundo, B. (2021). Multilingual African Learning Spaces: Translanguaging Practices in Kenyan Schools. Bayreuth Academy of Advanced African Studies. https://www.bayreuth- academy.uni-bayreuth.de/en/News_Activities/Fellows_-lectures/SoSe- 2021/Otundo/index.html. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

46. Potowski K. (2007). Language and Identity in a Dual Immersion School. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

47. Rajendram, S., Burton, J., Wong W. & Bale J. (2022). Examining Teacher Candidates’ Pedagogical Practices and Stances towards Translanguaging and Multimodality in Writing. Canadian Journal of Applied Linguistics, Special Issue, 25, 3 (2022): 33-65. DOI:10.37213/cjal.2022.32597. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

48. Rodríguez, I. Y., Rodríguez, Y., Rodríguez, J. E. M., & Rodríguez, A. S. M. (2024). Immersion Programs: Beyond Language Learning. Enletawa Journal. Issn (online) 2463-1965 Publicación Continua Volumen 17 N.° 2. 2024. https://doi.org/10.19053/uptc.2011835X.17941. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

49. Rosa, J., & Flores, N. (2017). Unsettling race and language: Toward a raciolinguistic perspective. Language in Society, 46(5), 621–647. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0047404517000562 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

50. Seals C. A. (2021). Benefits of Translanguaging Pedagogy and Practice. Victoria University of Wellington. Scottish Languages Review Issue 36, Autumn 2021, 1-8. https://scilt.org.uk/Article/tabid/1092.... [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

51. Smith, P. (2019). (Re)Positioning in the Englishes and (English) literacies of a Black immigrant youth: Towards a transraciolinguistic approach. Theory Into Practice, 58(3), 292– 303.https://doi.org/10.1080/00405841.2019.1599227 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

52. Smith, P., Kumi-Yeboah, A., Chang, R., Lee, J., & Frazier, P. (2019). Rethinking “(under) performance” for Black English speakers: Beyond achievement to opportunity. Journal of Black Studies, 50(6), 528–554. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021934719851870 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

53. Somsai, S. & Intaraprasert, C. (2011). Strategies for Coping with Face-to-face Oral Communication Problems Employed by Thai University Students Majoring in English. GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies, 11(3): 83-96. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

54. Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: Some roles of comprehensible input and comprehensible output in its development. In S. Gass & C. Madden (Eds.), Input in second language acquisition (pp. 235-253). Rowley, MA: Newbury House. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/304782155 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

55. Tamayo I. Y. R., Rodríguez J. E. M., & Rodríguez, A. S. M. (2024). Immersion Programs: Beyond Language Learning. Enletawa Journal. 2024-09-21. Journal article. DOI: 10.19053/uptc.2011835X.17941 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

56. Wamalwa, E. (2016). Utilization of Instructional Media to enhance Students’ learning of English in Bungoma North District’s Secondary Schools, Bungoma County, Kenya. Kenyatta University. Nairobi. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

57. Wamalwa, E. J. & Syomwene, A. (2025). The Use of Translanguaging as a Strategy for Teaching English as a Second Language in Sub-County Secondary Schools in Bungoma County, Kenya. The Educator. A Journal of the school of Education, Moi University. https://journals.mu.ac.ke/index.php/edj/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

58. Wei, L. (2011). Moment analysis and translanguaging space: Discursive construction of identities by multilingual Chinese youth in Britain. Journal of Pragmatics, 43, 1222-1235. doi:10.1016/ j.pragma. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

59. World Bank, (2005). LOUD AND CLEAR: Impact of Educational Outcomes: Beyond Academic achievement. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

60. Young T.J. (2016). Questionnaires and Surveys. In Zhu Hua, Ed. Research Methods in Intercultural Communication: A Practical Guide. Oxford: Wiley. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

• The Impact of Ownership Structure on Dividend Payout Policy of Listed Plantation Companies in Sri Lanka
• Urban Sustainability in North-East India: A Study through the lens of NER-SDG index
• Performance Assessment of Predictive Forecasting Techniques for Enhancing Hospital Supply Chain Efficiency in Healthcare Logistics
• The Fractured Self in Julian Barnes' Postmodern Fiction: Identity Crisis and Deflation in Metroland and the Sense of an Ending
• Impact of Flood on the Employment, Labour Productivity and Migration of Agricultural Labour in North Bihar