Orientation and Mobility Training as a Core Component of Supported Employment for Employees with Visual Impairment

Employment participation among persons with visual impairments (PVI) remains limited by persistent barriers, particularly mobility constraints and inaccessible workplace environments. Although Orientation and Mobility (O&M) training is widely recognised as essential for independent travel, its role within supported employment, especially in real workplace contexts, remains insufficiently examined. This study explored how O&M training supports employment access, daily commuting, initial workplace adaptation, and collaborative support processes for PVI within supported employment in Malaysia. A qualitative multiple case study design was employed. Data were collected through in-depth, semi-structured interviews with purposively selected informants, including employees with visual impairments, employment specialists, and employers in private sector settings. Interview data were analysed using inductive thematic analysis supported by NVivo (Version 14), with trustworthiness enhanced through triangulation and member checking. The analysis generated four interrelated themes: (i) O&M as access to employment; (ii) O&M in daily commuting and independent mobility; (iii) O&M supporting workplace adjustment and job retention; and (iv) O&M as a structured and collaborative support process. Overall, the findings indicate that O&M training extends beyond basic mobility skills and functions as an employment-oriented support mechanism across pre-employment, placement, and retention phases. The integration of context-specific O&M training within supported employment models may strengthen workplace inclusion, safety, and sustainable employment outcomes for PVI.

orientation and mobility training; supported employment; persons with visual impairments; workplace adaptation; independent commuting

1. Ajuwon, P. M., Olawuwo, S. O., Ahon, A. T., Griffin-Shirley, N., Nguyen, T., & Stallings, R. Y. (2022). Orientation and mobility services in Nigeria by vision status. International Journal of Special Education, 37(2), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.52291/ijse.2022.37.35 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Alanazi, A. S., & Benlaria, H. (2024). Understanding the landscape: Assistive technology and work challenges for people with disabilities in Saudi Arabia. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 11, 1608. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-04023-z [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. Altunay, B., Yalcin, G., & Uysal Sarac, M. (2021). Orientation and mobility problems of adults with visual impairment and suggestions for solutions. Journal of Qualitative Research in Education, 28, 300–330. https://doi.org/10.14689/enad.28.13 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. Amaral, C., Chamorro-Koc, M., Beatson, A., Gottlieb, U., Tuzovic, S., & Bowring, N. (2025). The journey to work of young adults with mobility disability: A qualitative study on the digital technologies that support mobility. Disability & Society, 40(3), 638–659. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687599.2023.2275521 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. Blake, K. (2021). A critical literature analysis of the orientation and mobility paradigm. British Journal of Visual Impairment. https://doi.org/10.1177/0264619620920901 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Darabont, D. C., Badea, D. O., Trifu, A., & Fogarassy, P. (2020). The impact of new assistive technologies on specific occupational risks for blind and visually impaired peoples. MATEC Web of Conferences, 305, 00079. https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/202030500079 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. De Veuster, I., & Bastiaens, C. (2023). Employment of working-age adults (18–65 years) with a visual impairment at an ambulatory visual rehabilitation centre (De Markgrave) in Belgium. International Journal of Integrated Care, 23(S1), 378. https://doi.org/10.5334/ijic.ICIC23378 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. Deverell, L., Bhowmik, J., Lau, B. T., Al Mahmud, A., Sukunesan, S., Islam, F. M. A., McCarthy, C., & Meyer, D. (2020). Use of technology by orientation and mobility professionals in Australia and Malaysia before COVID-19. Disability and Rehabilitation: Assistive Technology, 17(3), 260–267. https://doi.org/10.1080/17483107.2020.1785565 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. Griffin-Shirley, N., Lee, J., Nguyen, T., Othuon, V., & Page, A. (2020). Survey-based learning of interns in orientation and mobility program. Vision Rehabilitation International, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.21307/vri-2020-001 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. Gupta, S., Sukhai, M., & Wittich, W. (2021). Employment outcomes and experiences of people with seeing disability in Canada: An analysis of the Canadian Survey on Disability 2017. PLOS ONE, 16(11), e0260160. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0260160 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. Kaiser, J. T., Fast, D., DeGrant, J. N., & Welch-Grenier, S. (2022). Orientation and mobility during COVID-19 and the effect on psychosocial functioning. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145482X221143796 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. McDonnall, M. C. (2020). “Employment is everyone’s job”: An important reminder for the field of visual impairment. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 114(1), 3–5. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145482X19900744 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Nayak, A. K., Prakash, Y., Jayarathna, S., Lee, H.-N., & Ashok, V. (2025). Insights in adaptation: Examining self-reflection strategies of job seekers with visual impairments in India (arXiv:2506.22741v1). arXiv. https://arxiv.org/abs/2506.22741 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. Okonji, E. P., Okonji, P. I., Connors, E., & Leja, J. (2024). Exploring the lived experiences of (un)employment among visually impaired persons in Nigeria: Implications for policy and practice. British Journal of Visual Impairment. https://doi.org/10.1177/02646196221148331 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. Ricci, F. S., Boldini, A., Beheshti, M., Rizzo, J.-R., & Porfiri, M. (2023). A virtual reality platform to simulate orientation and mobility training for the visually impaired. Virtual Reality, 27, 797–814. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10055-022-00691-x [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. Sabar, B. U., Kanwal, A., & Bashir, R. (2024). Employment challenges and opportunities for persons with visual impairment in Pakistan. Journal of Business and Social Review in Emerging Economies, 10(2), 133– 142. https://doi.org/10.26710/jbsee.v10i2.2965 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. Seram, P. S. T. N. de. (2024). Employability and disability: Challenges faced by visually impaired employees in Sri Lanka. Student Journal of Social Work, 4(1), 15–36. https://doi.org/10.4038/sjsw.v4i1.22 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. Shemndolwa, M., Muzata, K. K., & Simalalo, M. (2025). Strategies addressing orientation and mobility challenges facing students with visual impairment in selected Tanzanian universities. Eureka: Journal of Educational Research, 4(1), 22–36. https://doi.org/10.56773/ejer.v4i1.77 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. Soltani, I., Schofield, J., Madani, M., Kish, D., & Emami-Naeini, P. (2025). User-centered insights into assistive navigation technologies for individuals with visual impairment. arXiv Preprint. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2504.06379 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. Tylutki, K., Konopacka, Z., Woźniak, J., & Solatycka, D. (2024). Adaptation of the workplace for disabled people—Sustainable participation in the labor market. Sustainability, 16(17), 7473. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177473 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. Uiras, K., Paulse, N. A., Murangi, A., & Hlatywayo, C. K. (2024). Employment challenges for persons with visual impairment in Windhoek, Namibia. African Journal of Disability, 13, a1500. https://doi.org/10.4102/ajod.v13i0.1500 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]