Contextual Predictors of Reading Comprehension among Grade 4 Learners in Hinterland Schools

Reading serves as a gateway to learning, critical thinking, and knowledge acquisition, making reading comprehension a crucial skill for Grade 4 pupils, particularly those in hinterland areas where access to educational resources may be limited. However, limited studies have examined the combined influence of well-being and academic efficacy on the reading comprehension of learners in these contexts. This study examined the influence of well-being and academic efficacy on the reading comprehension of 137 Grade 4 pupils in selected hinterland public elementary schools during School Year 2025–2026. A descriptive-correlational research design was employed using a modified questionnaire, and multiple regression analysis was used to determine whether the variables significantly predict reading comprehension. Results revealed that although pupils frequently experienced well-being and demonstrated a high level of academic efficacy, their overall reading comprehension remained at the Beginning level. Further analysis showed that both well-being and academic efficacy significantly influenced reading comprehension. The findings suggest that improving reading comprehension requires not only the development of cognitive skills but also the strengthening of learners’ well-being and academic efficacy. Thus, interventions that integrate socio-emotional support and academic skill development are essential to enhance learners’ reading performance, particularly in resource-limited hinterland schools. Schools, particularly in hinterland areas, may implement integrated reading intervention programs that simultaneously strengthen learners’ socio-emotional well-being, academic efficacy, and reading comprehension through structured, scaffolded, and learner-centered instructional strategies.

well-being, academic efficacy, reading comprehension, hinterland schools

1. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice-Hall. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Basith, A., Syahputra, S., & Ichwanto, M. A. (2020). Academic self-efficacy as predictor of reading comprehension. Jurnal Pendidikan Indonesia, 9(1), 163-170. https://doi.org/10.23887/jpi-undiksha.v9i1.24403 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. Bazar, J. S., Arabejo, A. J. D., Reyes, M. R., & Baluyos, G. R. (2024). Pupils' wellbeing and level of motivation towards science learning in relation to their reading comprehension. EduLine: Journal of Education and Learning Innovation, 4(1), 182-195. https://doi.org/10.35877/454RI.eduline2009 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. Butler, J., & Kern, M. L. (2021). The PERMA-Profiler: A brief multidimensional measure of flourishing. International Journal of Wellbeing, 11(2), 1-48. https://doi.org/10.5502/ijw.v11i2.1007 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. Cobo-Rendón, R., Pérez-Villalobos, M. V., Páez-Rovira, D., & Gracia-Leiva, M. (2020). A longitudinal study: Affective wellbeing, psychological wellbeing, self-efficacy and academic performance among first-year undergraduate pupils. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 61(4), 518-526. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (5th ed.). SAGE Publications. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. Cruz, E. J. P., Buban, C. R., Cabullos, M. A. F., Menegon, I. C., Torreliza, M. R., & Amistad, A. M. (2024). The effect of perceived academic performance on positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment (PERMA) among college students in Metro Manila. Puissant, 5(1). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. Datu, J. A. D., & Mateo, N. J. (2020). Character strengths, academic self-efficacy, and well-being outcomes in the Philippines: A longitudinal study. Children and Youth Services Review, 119, 105649. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105649 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. Department of Education. (2015). Policy guidelines on classroom assessment for the K to 12 basic education program (DepEd Order No. 8, s. 2015). Department of Education. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. Department of Education. (2020). K to 12 English curriculum learning competencies. Department of Education. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. Department of Education. (2022). MATATAG Curriculum Framework. Department of Education Philippines. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. Dermitzaki, I. (2025). Fostering elementary school pupils' self-regulation skills in reading comprehension: Effects on text comprehension, strategy use, and self-efficacy. Behavioral Sciences, 15(2), 101. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15020101 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Donaldson, S. I., Donaldson, S. I., & Lee, J. Y. (2021). PERMA+4: A framework for work-related wellbeing, performance and positive organizational psychology 2.0. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 817244. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.817244 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. Duke, N. K., Ward, A. E., & Pearson, P. D. (2021). The science of reading comprehension instruction. The Reading Teacher, 74(6), 663-672. https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.1993 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. Fakhrouh, A., & Habib, L. H. (2022). The relationship between academic self-efficacy and reading comprehension in pupils of the Department of Special Education. International Journal of Higher Education, 11(2), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.5430/ijhe.v11n2p1 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. Fuqaha, A., & Wartim. (2023). The difficulties of determining main idea on pupils reading comprehension. Journal of Education, Language Innovation, and Applied Linguistics, 2(2), 101-110. https://doi.org/10.37058/jelita.v2i2.7974 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. Galvez, R. S. (2022). Learners' psychological well-being and academic performance in the midst of health crisis: A correlational study. Cosmos: An International Journal of Art and Higher Education, 11(1), 45-52. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. Güngör, A. Y. (2020). The relationship between academic procrastination, academic self-efficacy, and reading comprehension among undergraduates. Oltu Beşeri ve Sosyal Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 1(1), 57-68. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. Hall, C., Vaughn, S., Barnes, M. A., Stewart, A. A., Austin, C. R., & Roberts, G. (2020). The effects of inference instruction on the reading comprehension of English learners with reading comprehension difficulties. Remedial and Special Education, 41(5), 259-270. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. Kaya, M., & Erdem, C. (2021). Pupils' well-being and reading comprehension: A meta-analysis study. Child Indicators Research, 14(5), 1743-1767. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-021-09821-4 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. Klemfuss, J. Z., McWilliams, K., Henderson, H. M., Olaguiez, A. P., & Lyon, T. D. (2020). Order of encoding predicts young children's responses to sequencing questions. Cognitive Development, 55, 100927. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogdev.2020.100927 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

22. Lera, M. J., Leon-Perez, J. M., & Ruiz-Zorrilla, P. (2022). Effective educational practices and pupils' well-being: The mediating role of pupils' self-efficacy. Current Psychology, 42(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-03266-w [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

23. Martinot, D., Sicard, A., Gul, B., Yakimova, S., Taillandier-Schmitt, A., & Maintenant, C. (2022). Peers and teachers as the best source of social support for school engagement for both advantaged and priority education area pupils. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 958286. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.958286 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

24. McBride, E., Murray, A. B. V., & Duggan, M. (2021). Academic self-efficacy, student performance, and well-being in a first-year seminar. Journal of The First-Year Experience & Students in Transition, 33(1), 99-119. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

25. Meng, Q., & Zhang, Q. (2023). The influence of academic self-efficacy on university pupils' academic performance: The mediating effect of academic engagement. Sustainability, 15(7), 5767. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15075767 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

26. Morinaj, J., & Hascher, T. (2022). On the relationship between pupil well-being and reading comprehension: A longitudinal study among secondary school pupils in Switzerland. Zeitschrift für Psychologie, 230(3), 201-214. https://doi.org/10.1027/2151-2604/a000499 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

27. Ong, C. G., Taglucop, L., & Fermano, J. C. (2021). Assessment of the basic education reading curriculum in Northern Mindanao. Science International (Lahore), 33(5), 317-319. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

28. Oriel, M. A. V., & Carlos, M. D. (2024). DepEd's Virtual Kumustahan: A technique for the development of learners' wellbeing. American Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Research, 8(11), 59-67. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

29. Panadero, E. (2021). A review of self-regulated learning: Six models and four directions for research. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 658793. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.658793 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

30. Peng, P., Wang, W., Filderman, M. J., Zhang, W., & Lin, L. (2024). The active ingredient in reading comprehension strategy intervention for struggling readers: A Bayesian network meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 94(2), 228-267. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543231171345 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

31. Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Flourish. Free Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

32. Tipon, E. C., Gumapac, J. L. G., & Vea, M. R. M. (2021). Academic self-efficacy and student engagement in the new normal. International Journal of Educational Management and Development Studies, 2(3), 21-37. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

33. Xu, X. (2024). Academic self-efficacy and reading comprehension: Indirect pathways through teacher support and engagement. [As cited in the thesis]. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

34. Zysberg, L., & Schwabsky, N. (2021). School climate, academic self-efficacy and student achievement. Educational Psychology, 41(4), 467-482. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

• Assessment of the Role of Artificial Intelligence in Repositioning TVET for Economic Development in Nigeria
• Teachers’ Use of Assure Model Instructional Design on Learners’ Problem Solving Efficacy in Secondary Schools in Bungoma County, Kenya
• “E-Booksan Ang Kaalaman”: Development, Validation, and Utilization of Electronic Book in Academic Performance of Grade 9 Students in Social Studies
• Analyzing EFL University Students’ Academic Speaking Skills Through Self-Recorded Video Presentation
• Major Findings of The Study on Total Quality Management in Teachers’ Education Institutions (TEIs) In Assam – An Evaluative Study