Cross-Laminated Timber as an Alternative Housing System for Tropical Peatlands: Evidence from Sarawak, Malaysia

The convergence of affordable housing demand, flood exposure and problematic ground conditions presents a distinctive challenge for housing development on tropical peatlands. This study explores the feasibility of Cross-Laminated Timber (CLT) as an alternative construction system for affordable and flood-resilient housing in Sarawak, Malaysia. An exploratory qualitative case-study design was adopted, using purposive sampling to obtain perspectives from stakeholders with relevant expertise in construction, structural engineering, architecture, timber and engineered wood products, housing development, academia and regulatory practice. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews and analysed using thematic analysis. The findings indicate that the feasibility of CLT is multidimensional and cannot be determined solely by its structural or environmental attributes. Its relatively low structural mass offers a potentially important advantage on highly compressible peat by reducing superstructure loading and, consequently, foundation demand, while prefabrication may improve construction efficiency and support whole-system cost optimisation. However, these advantages remain conditional upon effective flood-adaptive design, moisture management, biological and termite protection, connection durability, fire and adhesive performance, manufacturing consistency and regulatory acceptance. The analysis further highlights the distinction between the availability of local timber resources and readiness to manufacture structurally certified CLT products. The study concludes that CLT represents a promising but conditional pathway for affordable housing on tropical peatlands rather than an immediately deployable substitute for conventional construction.

Cross-Laminated Timber; affordable housing; flood resilience; peatlands; Sarawak.

1. Abushama, K., Hawkins, W., Pelecanos, L., & Ibell, T. (2024). Embodied carbon optimisation of concrete pile foundations and comparison of the performance of different pile geometries. Engineering Structures, 310, 118109. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Adeyemi, A. B., Ohakawa, T. C., Okwandu, A. C., Iwuanyanwu, O., & Ifechukwu, G. O. (2024). Affordable housing and resilient design: Preparing low-income housing for climate change impacts. Journal of Sustainable Architecture, 12(2), 45-60. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. Ariaee, A. M., & Takalloo, S. (2024). Impact of affordable housing programs on social equity and economic development. International Journal of Management and Accounting, 6(5), 108-117. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. Asyiqin, A. B. N., & Ong, K. H. (2025). Adapting forest plantations to climate change: strategies, challenges, and opportunities in Malaysia. New Forests, 56(3), 35. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. Campbell, S., Greenwood, M., Prior, S., Shearer, T., Walkem, K., Young, S., ... & Walker, K. (2020). Purposive sampling: complex or simple? Research case examples. Journal of research in Nursing, 25(8), 652-661. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Castañeda Valdés, A., Corvo Pérez, F., Pech Pech, I., Marrero Águila, R., & Bastidas-Arteaga, E. (2024). Durability requirements for reinforced concrete structures placed in a hostile tropical coastal environment. Buildings, 14(8), 2494. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. Dahal, N., Neupane, B. P., Pant, B. P., Dhakal, R. K., Giri, D. R., Ghimire, P. R., & Bhandari, L. P. (2024). Participant selection procedures in qualitative research: Experiences and some points for consideration. Frontiers in Research Metrics and Analytics, 9, 1512747. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. De Araujo, V., Aguiar, F., Jardim, P., Mascarenhas, F., Marini, L., Aquino, V., ... & Christoforo, A. (2023). Is cross-laminated timber (CLT) a wood panel, a building, or a construction system? A systematic review on its functions, characteristics, performances, and applications. Forests, 14(2), 264. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. Debnath, R., Dey, A. K., Paul, A., & Kundu, S. K. (2025). Critical appraisal of geo-engineering properties of tropical peat soils. Sādhanā, 50(3), 200. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. Dehdasht, G., Ferwati, M. S., Abidin, N. Z., & Oyedeji, M. O. (2022). Trends of construction industry in Malaysia and its emerging challenges. Journal of Financial Management of Property and Construction, 27(2), 161-178. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. Dodoo, A., Nguyen, T., Dorn, M., Olsson, A., & Bader, T. K. (2022). Exploring the synergy between structural engineering design solutions and life cycle carbon footprint of cross-laminated timber in multi-storey buildings. Wood Material Science & Engineering, 17(1), 30-42. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. Esa, M. S. M., Wahid, H., Yaacob, S. E., & Mohamad, A. H. H. (2025). Asnaf development outcome: A systematic literature review and logic model development. SAGE Open, 15(3), 1–20. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Ilgın, H. E., & Karjalainen, M. (2023a). Insights from Finnish experts on the construction practices and future prospects of Cross-Laminated timber (CLT). Forests, 15(1), 31. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. Ilgın, H. E., Karjalainen, M., & Mikkola, P. (2023b). Views of Cross-Laminated timber (CLT) manufacturer representatives around the world on CLT practices and its future outlook. Buildings, 13(12), 2912. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. Jamatia, D. K., Dey, A. K., & Debnath, R. (2025). Experimental study on the bearing capacity behaviour of branched piling for stabilisation of constructions on peat: A model investigation. Mires and Peat, 32, 30. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. Jorat, M. E., Minto, A., Tierney, I., & Gilmour, D. (2024). Future carbon-neutral societies: minimising construction impact on groundwater-dependent wetlands and peatlands. Sustainability, 16(17), 7713. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. Kabir, C. R., Islam, M., Hassan, M. B., & Rahman, M. (2025). Impact of local climate and large-scale climate drivers on the growth of Gmelina arborea Roxb. in a South Asian moist tropical forest. Trees, 39(2), 41. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. Kaiser, Z. A., & Akter, F. (2025). From risk to resilience and sustainability: Addressing urban flash floods and waterlogging. Risk Sciences, 1, 100011. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. Kaladi, F., Wang, F., & Kherazi, F. Z. (2023). Structural Stability: A Comprehensive Review of PileFoundations in Construction. Journal of Asian Development Studies, 12(4), 412-425. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. Kuka, E., Cirule, D., Andersone, I., Andersons, B., & Fridrihsone, V. (2022). Conditions influencing mould growth for effective prevention of wood deterioration indoors. Applied Sciences, 12(3), 975. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. Kurzinski, S., Crovella, P., & Kremer, P. (2022). Overview of cross-laminated timber (CLT) and timber structure standards across the world. Mass Timber Construction Journal, 5(1), 1-13. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

22. Li, H., Wei, Y., Lin, Y., Chen, S., & Chen, J. (2024). Out-of-plane characteristics of cross-laminated bamboo and timber beams under variable span three-point loading. Construction and Building Materials, 411, 134647. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

23. Li, Z., & Tsavdaridis, K. D. (2023). Design for seismic resilient cross laminated timber (clt) structures: A review of research, novel connections, challenges and opportunities. Buildings, 13(2), 505. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

24. McKee, M., Howden-Chapman, P., Braithwaite, I., & Bentley, R. (2026). Health-promoting housing policy in a changing climate: integrating affordability, security, and resilience. Health promotion international, 41(1), daaf238. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

25. Mensah, P., Pimenta, A. S., de Melo, R. R., Amponsah, J., Tuo, G., Chakurah, I., ... & de Medeiros, P. L. (2025). The global supply chain of wood products: A literature review. Forests, 16(7), 1036. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

26. Mohamad, A. H. H., Ab-Rahim, R., Kushairi, A. R. E., & Esa, M. S. M. (2024b). Housing market: A bibliometric analysis from 2020 to 2024. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 14(8), 274–295. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

27. Mohamad, A. H. H., Ab-Rahim, R., Zainuddin, M. R. K. V., & Kushairi, A. R. E. (2024a). Spending behaviour toward the financial aid during COVID-19 in Sarawak. International Journal of Academic Research in Accounting, Finance and Management Sciences, 14(1), 154–172. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

28. Mohamad, A. H. H., Kushairi, A. R. E., & Ho, J. C. B. (2025). Socioeconomic and locational determinants of house buying behaviour in Bintulu: A micro-level urban housing analysis. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science, 9(8), 886–895. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

29. Nakajima, M. (2026). Moisture Damage in Hot-Humid Buildings: Drying Deficit, Envelope Moisture Response, Mold-Risk Assessment, and Building Adaptation. Buildings, 16(14), 2801. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

30. Nguyen, N., Javan, K., Jordan, A., Akbarnezhad, A., & Banihashemi, S. (2026). Techno-economic analysis of 3D printed modular housing: Productivity, cost, and environmental assessment. Journal of Cleaner Production, 539, 147461. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

31. Ogut, O., Tzortzi, N. J., & Bertolin, C. (2022). Vertical green structures to establish sustainable built environment: A systematic market review. Sustainability, 14(19), 12349. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

32. Opabola, E. A., Baiguera, M., Raby, A., Rossetto, T., Pomonis, A., Meilianda, E., ... & Marafini, F. (2026). Diagnosing Long-Term Divergence in Build Back Better Outcomes in Low-and Lower-Middle Income Communities. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 106190. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

33. Rahman, H. F. A., Gapor, S. A., Echoh, D. U., & Moriat, R. (2022). The effects of poverty to housing condition: case study of Kampung Sentosa, Sibu, Sarawak. Borneo Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 4(1). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

34. Rahman, N. A., Jol, C. J., Linus, A. A., Ming, C. K., Arif, P., Baharuddin, N., ... & Hamid, D. F. A. A. A. (2023). Treatment of tropical peat water in Sarawak peatlands nature reserve by utilising a batch electrocoagulation system. Sustainable Chemistry for the Environment, 4, 100043. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

35. Shufrin, I., Pasternak, E., & Dyskin, A. (2023). Environmentally friendly smart construction—Review of recent developments and opportunities. Applied Sciences, 13(23), 12891. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

36. Shuid, S. (2016). The housing provision system in Malaysia. Habitat International, 54, 210-223. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

37. Singh, J. (2024). Water damage and mould growth in buildings: Causes, detection, identification, remediation and health implications. Journal of Building Survey, Appraisal & Valuation, 12(4), 321-332. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

38. Tobi, S. U. M., Jasimin, T. H., & Rani, W. N. M. W. M. (2020). Overview of affordable housing from supply and demand context in Malaysia. In IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science (Vol. 409, No. 1, p. 012010). IOP Publishing. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

39. Wielopolski, M., & Bulthuis, W. (2023). The better building initiative—a collaborative ecosystem involving all stakeholders as catalyst to accelerate the adoption of circular economy innovations in the construction sector. Circular Economy and Sustainability, 3(2), 719-733. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

40. Wiesner, F., Hadden, R., Deeny, S., & Bisby, L. (2022). Structural fire engineering considerations for cross-laminated timber walls. Construction and building materials, 323, 126605. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

41. Willis, C. M. A., & Mohsin, A. B. (2025). Affordable housing schemes in Malaysia: A review of systematic gaps. International Journal of Real Estate Studies, 19(2), 12-22. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

42. Wu, H., & Wong, J. W. C. (2022). Mechanisms of indoor mold survival under moisture dynamics, a special water treatment approach within the indoor context. Chemosphere, 302, 134748. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

43. Wulandari, R., Iswara, A. P., Qadafi, M., Prayogo, W., Astuti, R. D. P., Utami, R. R., ... & Andhikaputra, G. (2024). Water pollution and sanitation in Indonesia: a review on water quality, health and environmental impacts, management, and future challenges. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 31(58), 65967-65992. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

44. Yasir, M., Ruane, K., O’Ceallaigh, C., & Jaksic, V. (2025). Fire Performance of Cross-Laminated Timber: A Review of Standards, Experimental Testing, and Numerical Modelling Approaches. Fire, 8(10), 406. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

45. Yau, Y., Ocholi, A., Kaura, J. M., Lawan, A., & Sulaiman, T. A. (2024). Experimental Evaluation of the Physical and Sorption Properties of Gmelina Arborea Timber for Development of Wood-based Materials. Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

46. Yusof, A. F. M., Yusnar, C., Illahi, Y. R., Maharjan, R., & Widyasamratri, H. (2025). Green Construction in Malaysia: Integrating Regulation, Sustainability, and Innovation for a Resilient Future. Civil and Sustainable Urban Engineering, 5(1), 53-68. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

• Assessment of the Role of Artificial Intelligence in Repositioning TVET for Economic Development in Nigeria
• Teachers’ Use of Assure Model Instructional Design on Learners’ Problem Solving Efficacy in Secondary Schools in Bungoma County, Kenya
• “E-Booksan Ang Kaalaman”: Development, Validation, and Utilization of Electronic Book in Academic Performance of Grade 9 Students in Social Studies
• Analyzing EFL University Students’ Academic Speaking Skills Through Self-Recorded Video Presentation
• Major Findings of The Study on Total Quality Management in Teachers’ Education Institutions (TEIs) In Assam – An Evaluative Study